MEDIA SYSTEMS, JOURNALISTIC ROLES AND THE GOVERNMENT'S RIGHTS
Normative theories
- what journalism should be and do
- the basis of comparison: American, British model, modernism (Freedom House, RSF based on the normative theory)
Positive/descriptive theories
- what is and why it is
1956
2004
2015
Dimension | Authoritarian | Libertarian | Social Responsibility | Soviet-totalitarian |
---|---|---|---|---|
Developed | 16th, 17th century England | 17th century England, 18th century USA | 20th century USA | USSR |
Out of | Absolute power of the monarch | General philosphy of rationalism and natural rights | Commission of Freedom of Press, self regulatory codes | Marxism-Leninism, Hegelism |
Chief purpose | Support of the monarch/government | Inform, entertain, sell, discover the truth, check the government | inform, entertain, sell, raise awareness, giving voice to the powerless | Contribution to the success of the dictator |
Who has right | Who has royal patent or permission | Anyone with economic means | Everyone who has something to say | Loyals to the dictator and to the party |
How are the media controlled? | by government patents, guilds, license, censorship | self regulation, free market, courts | self regulation, ethics, consumer action | surveillance, political and economic influence on the press |
What is forbidden? | criticism of the monarch and its decisions | defamation, obscenity, indecency | invasion of private and human rights, and vital social interests | criticism of the dictator and party objectives |
Ownership | Pirvate or public | Mostly private | Mostly private | Public |
Essence | Instrument of effecting government policy | Checking the government | Assume obligation of social responsibility | Arm of state |
Dimension | Mediterranean or Polarized Pluralist | Northern-European or Democratic Corporatist | North-Atlantic Liberal |
---|---|---|---|
Where | France, Spain, Greece, Italy, Portugal | Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Netherlands, France | GBR, USA, Ireland, Canada |
Newspaper industry | Low circulation, elite and politically oriented press | High circulation, early developed mass-circulation press | Medium circulation, early adopted mass and commercial press |
Political parallelism | High political parallelism, external pluralism, commentary-journalism, parliamentary/government model of broadcasting | Historically strong party press, shift towards neutral commercial press, politics in broadcasting with substantial autonomy | Neutral commercial press, information oriented journalism, internal pluralism |
Professionalization | Weak, instrumentalization | Strong professionalization, institutionalized self regulation | Strong, noninstitutionalized self regulation |
Role of the state | Strong, state subsidies of the press, periods of censorship, deregulation | Strong with protection of press freedom, state subsidies, strong PSM | Market-dominated media, strong PSM in GBR and Ireland |
Party-press parallelism:
The structure of the media system is parallel to the structure of the party system
Political parallelism:
The structure of the media system is parallel to the structure of the political system
External/internal pluralism: high level of external pluralism = high level of parallelism.
Instrumentalization: influence of politics, politicians, business or commercial interest on content.
Dimension | Hybrid-liberal | Politicized | Transitional | Authoritarian |
---|---|---|---|---|
Where? | Czechia, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia | Hungary, Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia | Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia, Moldova, Ukraine | Russia, Belorussia |
Main characteristics | - High points on freedom of press and democracy rankings - Political stability - Strong, independent market - Numerous multinational companies - Political independence |
- Decreasing points on rankings - Strong political parallelism and party press - Growing political and governmental influence - Lower democratization - Low professionalism, low ethics and norms, partisanship - Oligarchization |
- Poor countries - Low points - Political instability - Weak opposition - Oligarchization - Strong connection between the political and the business elite - Few independent media |
- Surveillance, threats, harassment - Censorship - Political and business elite is the same - No independent actors - Strong government control |
Who, when | Denomination |
---|---|
Lázár, 1992 | Multi party press |
Splichal, 1994, Sipos 2010 | Italianization |
Wyka, 2007 | Berlusconization |
Jakubowicz, 2008 | Mediterranean |
Polyák-Urbán, 2013– | Captured |
Bajomi-Lázár, 2013 | Party-colonized |
Becker, 2013 | Vassal |
Dobek-Ostrowska, 2015 | Politicized |
Bajomi-Lázár, 2018 | Putinization |
Bajomi-Lázár, 2019 | Patronage-clientelism |
Bátorfy, 2020 | Semi-authoritarian |
Bátorfy, 2022 | Controlled, purchased |
Question | Neutral | Watchdog | Activist | Propagandist |
---|---|---|---|---|
Where | England, USA | England, USA | France, Russia, Germany | USSR, Nazi Germany |
Aim | Inform, entertain | hold the powerful accountable | raise awareness, advocacy, representation | serving the power and the leader |
Genre | News, report, infotainment | report, investigative report | investigative report, opinion-led report, gonzo journalism | interview, opinion |
Regulation | Self-regulation | Self regulation | Self regulation and state intervention | Particular media regulation, state intervention |
What is forbidden | Defamation, libel, fabrication, blasphemy | Defamation, libel, fabrication, expressing opinion in reports | Doing harm against the community/minority interest | Criticizing the power, the leader |
Media types | Tabloids, commercial television and radio | legacy press, public broadcaster | Online news media | Mostly state owned media, or oligarchs |
Financial background | Commercial advertising, subscription | Commercial advertising, grants, state subsidies | Grants, crowdfunding, state subsidies | Deflected commercial advertising, state advertising, state subvention |
Journalism's first obligation is to the truth
Its first loyalty is to citizens
Its essence is a discipline of verification
Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover
It must serve as an independent monitor of power
It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise
It must strive to keep the significant interesting and relevant
It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional
Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience
Citizens, too, have rights and responsibilities when it comes to the news
Text
US Constitution
Right to speak
Right to listen
Free speech rights
protection against
Government
US Constitution
Right to speak
Right to listen
derivatives
Right against coerced speech
Right against compelled listening
Free speech rights
Does the Government have the right to speak?
direct
indirect
Does the Government have the right to speak?
NO | YES | YES, BUT |
---|---|---|
Siebert, Peterson, Shramm, 1956 | Bagdikian, 1983 | Fiss, 2013 |
Mayton, 1994 | Altschull, 1984 | Redish and Kessler, 1996 |
Heymann, 1999 | Picard, 1985 | Post, 1995 |
Blocher, 2015 | Chomsky and Herman, 1988 | |
Kamenshine, 1979 | Hoynes and Croteau, 2013 | |
Yudof, 1983 | Merrill, 1973 |