Reference Books

• Federal Aviation Administration. (2016, August 24). Aeromedical Factors. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/19_phak_ch17.pdf
• Instrument Flying Handbook faa-h-8083-15B. (2012). Oklahoma City, OK: United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch.
• Instrument Pilot Syllabus (10001785-003). (2016). Englewood, CO: Jeppesen
• Pilots - WINGS - Pilot proficiency program - FAA - FAASTeam - FAASafety.gov. (n.d.). Safer Skies Through Education - FAA - FAASTeam - FAASafety.gov. https://www.faasafety.gov/wings/pub/learn_more.aspx

Reference Multimedia

• Illusion [Lead to spatial disorientation]. (n.d.). Retrieved December 06, 2018, from http://aeronauticalknowledgehandbookmanual.blogspot.com/2009/08/the-major-illusions-leading-to-spatial.html)
• https://assets3.thrillist.com/v1/image/1441834/size/tmg-slideshow_l.jpg
• https://farmingdaleaviation.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/photo-1518228684816-9135c15ab4ea.jpeg
• https://blacklioninsurance.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/stressed-pilot.jpg

Index

Instrument Rating Privileges

Before you begin with this new chapter in your career, first, you need to ask yourself

Why an instrument rating?

• Like a private pilot certificate, an instrument rating allows you to fly for personal or business reasons

We still have limitions:

Additional Certificates and Ratings 

Instrument Training

Instrument Flight Requirements § 61.65

• Hold at least a current private pilot certificate.
• Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
• Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor according to § 61.65 (b).
• Receive and log training on the areas of operation of § 61.65 (c) from an authorized instructor.
• Received the required Endorsements.
• Pass the required knowledge test.
• Pass the required practical test.

Instrument Flight Requirements

Refer to FARs Part 141 Appendix C and Part 61.65 for more details.

Instrument Currency

Recent Flight experience to act as PIC under IFR § 61.57(C)

6

6

H

I

T

6 Months Preceding

6 Instrument Approaches 

Holding 

Intercepting and 

Tracking Courses Through the Use of Navigational Electronic Systems. 

Within six months preceding the month of the flight, that person performed and logged at least the following tasks and iterations in an airplane or flight simulator under simulated conditions or actual weather to maintain the instrument privilege.

Instrument Proficiency Check § 61.57 (d)

A person who has failed to meet the instrument experience requirements §61.57 (c) more than six calendar months may reestablish instrument currency only by completing an instrument proficiency check. The instrument proficiency check must consist of at least the following areas of operation listed in §61.57(d).

Letter of legal interpretation §61.57 (c)

Click here.

Who Can Sign an Instrument Proficiency Check Endorsement? 

The instrument proficiency check must be given by:

• An examiner.
• A person authorized by the U.S. Armed Forces
• A company check pilot who is authorized to conduct instrument flight tests under part 121, 125, or 135.
• An authorized instructor.
• A person approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument practical tests

FAA Wings
Pilot Proficiency Program

• Is based on the premise that pilots who maintain currency and proficiency in the basics of flying.
   
• The program encourages an on-going training program that provides you an opportunity to fly regularly with an authorized flight instructor.
   
• You can also find a Instrument Proficiency Check Review Guidem, a structured guide to reviewing IFR rules and procedures.

FAA Wings
Pilot Proficiency Program

Lets Review...

Vision in flight

1. Light passes through the Lens and falls inside the Retina.​

2.  Inside the Retina there are Cones and Rods.  

Cones are functioning better when the light is bright, and are sensitive to colors

The eye works the same way as a camera

1

2

3

Night Vision

• Rods are mainly use during night.

• So when you are scanning for traffic use the off- center viewing to focus objects.

• In addition, if you stare at an object at night for more than 2 to 3 seconds, the retina becomes accustomed to​ the light intensity and the image begins to fade.
• To see an object clearly at night, you must expose the rods to the image. This is accomplished by looking 5º to 10º off the center of the object.

Dark Adaptation

Avoid bright light 30 min before every flight

• Rods are able to detect images in the dark because they create a chemical called rhodopsin, also referred to as visual purple. Rods can take up to 30 min to fully adapt to the dark.

  Your Health has an import impact on your vision, factor like drug, alcohol, smoking, lack of oxygen, carbon monoxide poison can decrease the night vision.

Why we need a red light on the cabin?

• The rods are least affected by the wavelength of red light so cockpit lighting has been lighted in red light.

• A low-level white light illuminating the instrument and within the cockpit should be used in flight.

Spatial Disorientation

Awareness of your body’s position in relation to our environment is a result of input from three primary sources:

• Vision: Eyes, which sense position based on what is seen

​

• Vestibular:  Organs found in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are balanced

​

• kinesthetic/Somatosensory sense: Nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with hearing, sense position based on gravity, feeling, and sound

Disorientation is when the brain receives conflict messages from your senses.

Spatial disorientation 

• Occurs when there is a conflict between the signal relayed by your central vision and your peripheral vision giving the pilot erroneous information about its position.

• Pilots should avoid making significant corrections that result in rapid attitude changes, for this may lead to spatial disorientation

Vestibular System

• The inner ear has two major parts concerned with orientation:

• The semicircular canals.
• Otolith organs.

• The three semicircular canals sense angular acceleration such as roll, pitch, and yaw. Each canal is filled with fluid and contains a gelatinous structure called the cupula.

• When subject to the different forces of flight, the vestibular system can send misleading signals to the brain resulting in vestibular disorientation.

Vestibular Disorientation

• During instrument maneuvers, the vestibular system may send misleading signals to the brain.

Kinesthetic Sense 

• Nerves in the body’s skin, muscles, and joints constantly send signals to the brain, which signals the body’s relation to gravity. These signals tell the pilot his or her current position. Acceleration is felt as the pilot is pushed back into the seat.

• Uncoordinated turns, especially climbing turns, can cause misleading signals to be sent to the brain. Skids and slips give the sensation of banking or tilting. Turbulence can create motions that confuse the brain as well.

Visual 

Autokinesis

• In the dark, a stationary light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds.

• Caused by staring at a single point or light.

• Focus your eyes on objects at varying distances and not fixate on one target, as well as maintain a normal visual scan.

Flicker Vertigo

• A light flickering at a frequency of 4 to 20 flashes per second can produce flicker vertigo.

• Can occur when you are looking through a slow-moving propeller toward the sun or when the sun is behind you.

False Horizons

• Occurs when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent.

• A Layer of clouds or Lights of boats at night can make the pilot think that he is level off when what is actually hapening is a turn or a dive.

Landing illusions

Can be caused by a wide variety of factors including runway width, sloping runways and terrain, and weather conditions which reduce visibility.

Wider runways will create the illusion of being lower.

Narrower  runways will create the illusion of being Higher.

Upslope:  illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is, "leading to a lower approach".

Downslope:  illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is, "leading to a higher approach". 

Atmospheric Illusions

Haze: create an illusion of being at a greater distance and height from the runway.

Fog: Create an illusion of pitching up.

Rain:  create an illusion of being at a higher altitude due to the horizon appearing lower than it is.

How to Prevent Landing Errors

1) Anticipate the possibility of visual illusions during approaches to unfamiliar airports.

2) Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially during all approaches, day and night.

 3) Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems

4) Maintain optimum proficiency in landing procedures.

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Here are some Vestibular System Illusions that any pilot can experience.

nversion

oriolis

levator Illusion

utokinesis

alse Horizon

eans

raveyard Spin / Spiral

omatogravic 

Inversion Illusion

• Caused by an abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight.

• Create the illusion of tumbling backwards or inversion illusion.

Coriolis Illusion

• When a pilot has been in a turn for a long time any movement of the head in a different plane, such as looking at something in a different part of the flight deck, may set the fluid moving and create the illusion of turning or accelerating on an entirely different axis. 

Elevator Illusion

• An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can stimulate the sensory organs to create the illusion of being in a climb.   The disoriented pilot may push the aircraft into nose-low attitude.
• An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, has the opposite effect with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose-up attitude.

False Horizons

• Occurs when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent.

• A Layer of clouds or Lights of boats at night can make the pilot think that he is level off when what is actually hapening is a turn or a dive.

When in a banked attitude is entered too slowly and an abrupt correction of this attitude sets the fluid in motion, creating the illusion of banked attitude to the opposite direction of the turn. 

Leans

Reaction

Illusion

Abrupt Correction

• As in other illusions, a pilot in a prolonged coordinated, constant-rate turn, will have the illusion of not turning. During the recovery to level flight, the pilot experiences the sensation of turning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot may return the aircraft to its original turn. and pulling back on the controls to the point he will lose control.

Graveyard Spin/Spiral

• A rapid acceleration, such as experienced during takeoff, stimulates the otolith organs in the same way as tilting the head backwards. Creating the illusion of pitch up attitude.

Somatogravic

Hypoxia

Common Symptoms of Hypoxia:

• ​Headache

• Decreased Reaction Time

• Impaired Judgment

• Visual Judgment

• Euphoria - Prevents the pilot from recognizing a potentially hazardous situation

• Drowsiness

• Numbness

• Tingling in Fingers and Toes

• Blue Fingernails and Lips (Cyanosis)

• Limp Muscles

Major Groups of Hypoxia

1. Hypoxic Hypoxia
2. Hypemic Hypoxia
3. Stagnant Hypoxia
4. Histotoxic Hypoxia

Hypoxic hypoxia

• Results in insufficient oxygen available to the body.

• Reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude.

• It can be caused by airplanes flying at high altitudes. The percentage of each gas in the atmosphere remains the same. Still, there are fewer molecules available at the pressure required for them to pass between the membranes in the respiratory system.

• This occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells in the body.

• Hypemic means “not enough blood.” This type of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood, rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen, and can be caused by a variety of factors.

• Blood diseases, such as anemia, can cause it. The most common form of hypemic hypoxia is CO poisoning. Hypemic hypoxia can also be caused by the loss of blood due to blood donation.

Hypemic Hypoxia

Stagnant Hypoxia

• Oxygen deficiency in the body due to poor circulation of the blood.

​

• Caused by shock, the heart fails to pump blood effectively, or a constricted artery. It could result from excessive positive G’s, and cold temperatures reduce circulation and decrease the blood supplied to extremities.

Histotoxic Hypoxia

• The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen to support metabolism. ​

• To the pilot, this means that even though there is an adequate supply of oxygen to breathe and that oxygen is being circulated by the blood, the cells are unable to accept or use the oxygen. Alcohol, narcotics, and cyanide are three primary factors that can cause histotoxic hypoxia.

Prevention of Hypoxia

Maintaining good physical condition, eating a nutritious diet, and avoiding alcohol and smoking.

Your body requires more oxygen during increased physical activity. The pilot is at a higher risk for hypoxia if:

• You are flying manually in turbulent conditions compared to a smooth flight on autopilot.

• Fast ascend. The pilot may be less aware of approaching hypoxia.

Ear and Sinus Block

Middle Ear Block

If a pilot has a cold, an ear infection, or sore throat, there is no possibility to equalize the pressure in the middle ear

• During climbs and descents, the free gas formerly present in various body cavities expands due to a difference between the pressure of the air outside the body and that of the air inside the body.
   
• Trapped gas expansion causes ear and sinus pain, and it can also causes temporary reduction in the ability to hear.

To remedy this often painful condition

• pinch the nostrils shut
• close the mouth and lips
• blow slowly and gently into the mouth and nose

Sinus Block

• Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the pressure in the flight deck through small openings that connect the sinuses to the nasal passage.
   
• An upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization.
   
• As the difference in pressure between the sinuses and the flight deck increases, congestion may plug the opening

Sinus Block

• The sinus block occurs most frequently during descent.
   
• A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses above each eyebrow or in the maxillary sinuses in each upper cheek.
   
• Slow descent rates can reduce the associated pain.
   
• Sinus block can be avoided by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition.

Decompression Sickness​

• Describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurization. Most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression.
• Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, Decompression Sickness​ can produce many symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. Individual susceptibility can vary from day to day, and different individuals under the same conditions may be affected differently or not at all.

Scuba Diving

The recommended waiting time before going to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12 hours after diving, which does not required controlled ascent (non-decompression stop diving), and at least 24 hours after diving if controlled ascent is requierd. The waiting time before going to flight altitudes above 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive.

Hyperventilation

It is a physiological disorder that develops when too much carbon dioxide (CO2) has been eliminated from the body, usually caused by breathing too rapidly or too intensely. Without a sufficient quantity of CO2, normal respiration is disturbed, producing symptoms that resemble hypoxia.

• Corrective Action: Slowing your breathing rate, talking aloud, or breathing into a paper bag restores the body’s proper carbon dioxide level typically. It would be best if you were especially alert of passengers who may feel anxious about flying.

Fitness For Flight 

Determining the overall fitness for flight is a vital self-evaluation that every pilot must conduct before a flight. Checklist such as IMSAFE and PAVE provide a self-check on for fitness to fly. 

Motion Sickness

• Erroneous messages sent to the brain will eventually lead to headaches, drowsiness, fatigue, vomiting.

• To help reduce these symptoms, focus far to the horizon, open the air vents, and drink water.
  

Stress

• Stress is the body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it.

• Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration all increase with stress.

Two broad categories:

• Acute (short term)
• Chronic (long term).

• The elements that cause an individual to experience stress are:
  • Physical
  • Physiological
  • Psychological

Acute Stress

• Acute stress involves an immediate threat that is perceived as a danger.

• This is the type of stress that triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual.

• Normally, a healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload.

• However, ongoing acute stress can develop into chronic stress.

Chronic Stress

• Presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual to cope, and causes individual performance to fall sharply.

• Psychological pressures, such as loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or work problems, can produce a cumulative level of stress.

• Pilots experiencing this level of stress are not safe and should not exercise their airman privileges.

• Pilots who suspect they are suffering from chronic stress should consult a physician.

Fatigue

• Fatigue is associated with degradation of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate.

Two broad categories:

• Acute (short term)
• Chronic (long term).

• The elements that cause an individual to experience fatigue are:
  • ​Physical fatigue
  • Mental fatigue

Acute Fatigue

• Acute fatigue is short term and is a normal occurrence in everyday living.

• Kind of tiredness people feels after a period of strenuous effort.

• Acute fatigue can be prevented by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep.

Chronic Fatigue

• Chronic fatigue, extending over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is sometimes responsible.

• Continuous high-stress levels produce chronic fatigue.

• Usually requires treatment by a physician.

Alcohol and Drugs

• Alcohol and drugs impair the efficiency of the human body.

• As little as one ounce of alcohol can decrease the speed and strength of muscular reflexes, lessen the efficiency of eye movements while reading, and increase the frequency at which errors are committed.

• Considerable amounts of alcohol can remain in the body for over 16 hours, so pilots should be cautious about flying too soon after drinking.

• 14 CFR part 91 requires that blood alcohol level be less than .04 percent and that 8 hours pass between drinking alcohol and piloting an aircraft.

Hypothermia

• When your body temperature drops, your heart, nervous system and other organs can't work normally.
   
• Hypothermia can lead to complete failure of your heart and respiratory system and eventually to death if left untreated
   
• Hypothermia is often caused by exposure to cold weather or immersion in cold water

• Shivering
• Exhaustion or feeling very tired
• Confusion
• Fumbling hands

• Drink plenty of fluids and warm/hot drinks
• Eat regular balanced meals to give you energy
•  Keep active when it's cold, but not to the point where you're sweating.
• Keep dry and change out of wet clothes as soon as possible

• Slurred or mumbled speech
• Loss of coordination
• Fumbling hands, stumbling steps
• A slow, weak pulse.
• In severe hypothermia, a person may be unconscious without obvious signs of breathing or a pulse

Aeronautical Decision Making

ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

• Define the problem
• Choose a course of action
• Implement the decision
• Evaluate the outcome

Steps in decision making process

The Model Most Commonly Used

91.3 Pilot-in-command Responsibilities

As PIC you are the final authority of the aircraft. 

1.  You are the direct responsible for the safety of flight.

2.  Understand your own limitations, your health, level of stress or fatigue, attitude , knowledge, skill level.  

Crew Resource Management Training

The effective use of all available resources; Human, hardware, and information.

Risk Management

The ability to identify hazards and associated risk that could cause accidents. 

1) Flying is not possible without risk, but unnecessary risk comes without a corresponding return.

2) Accept risk when benefits outweigh dangers (costs). 

Laws Risk Management

Risk Management/ADM are divided into:

Hazards 

Hazards that will become a risk

Mitigate the risk 

What are the three P?

• Perceive hazards that will affect the integrity of the flight. (Pilot, Aircraft, Environment, External pressure).

• Process or analyze hazards that will become a risk. (Consequences, alternates, reality, external factors).

• Perform Mitigate the risk as much as possible. (Talk to somebody, eliminate the risk and work as a team).

Perceive

It the aircraft in airworthy condition to fly.? (AVIATES) Did I completed a Pre-flight inspection.? 

Are you in the capacity to perform as a PIC.? Are you Proficient.? Did you complete the IMSAFE checklist.?

Pilot

Aircraft

EnViroment

External pressure

Be familiar with the terrain, airports , airspace and  enroute weather.

Is someone waiting at the airport for you.? A passenger is disappointed.? Are you trying to impress someone.? 

Process

C

A

R

E

Consequences 

Alternates

Reality

External Factors 

What if...?

What are your options.? Delay the flight?

Dangers of fatigue could lead to an accident

Wedding or business meeting might be influencing this decision.?

Perform 

T

E

A

M

Transfer

Eliminate

Accept

Mitigate

Chief Pilot, CFI, More experienced airman

Is there a way to eliminate the risk?

Are the benefits of accepting the risks outweigh the costs?

Is there a way to eliminate the Risk?

Workload Management

• Effective workload management ensures essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. The use of all resources available is the key for an effective workload management.

Internal Resources

External Resources

• Pilot
• Aeronautical Charts
• Passenger 
• Checklist

• ATC
• Radar vectors
• FSS

Task Management

• The process by which the pilot manages many tasks that must be performed for the safety and efficiently of modern flying.

Situational Awareness

Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the five fundamental risk elements (flight, pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation) that affect safety.

Examples: Proximate terrain, obstructions, airspaces and weather systems.

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) Awareness

Is an accident in which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is unintentionally flown into the ground, a mountain, a body of water or an obstacle.

Caused By: Lack of situational awareness.

CFIT can be avoided with proper training procedures, crew resource management (CRM) and radar surveillance by air traffic services.

Automation Management

• Automation is the use of autopilot, or any automation, to improve situational awareness during the different phases of the flight. The autopilot possesses the capability of controlling the aircraft attitude.

• The Pilot must know how to manage the autopilot and navigation sources.