CMSC 304

Social and Ethical Issues in Information Technology

Bringing it all together + Writing

Research

Judgement Call

Writing

Judgement Call

Use your summary of your article for the "2. Choose a Product" step
There will be 1 round for each person in your table (8 groups: 4 people / table)
The content generated will be used for a section of your paper

Gameplay (4+ rounds):

each round, consider one of the articles
identify the stakeholders on whiteboard, select 10, write on stickies, put on cards
(skip step 4)
shuffle the 3 decks separately and deal
based on your RATING card, STAKEHOLDER card, and PRINCIPLES card combination you're dealt, write a review of that technology from the stakeholder's point of view
shuffle reviews and 1 person read reviews out loud, then discuss

Discussion Items for Paper

What individuals and groups have an important stake in the use of this technology, and what were their “reviews” of the tech? Are the concerns of some of those individuals or groups more important? Why?
Could actual or imagined use of this technology be damaging to someone or to some group, or unevenly beneficial to people? Does broad deployment of this technology involve a choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps between two “goods” or between two “bads”? Are these issues about more than solely what is legal or what is most efficient? If so, how?
What are the options for implementing this technology ethically to address the above? How can we make sure all the relevant persons and groups have been consulted? Are there other creative options?

Discussion Items for Paper

What individuals and groups have an important stake in the use of this technology, and what were their “reviews” of the tech? Are the concerns of some of those individuals or groups more important? Why?
Could actual or imagined use of this technology be damaging to someone or to some group, or unevenly beneficial to people? Does broad deployment of this technology involve a choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps between two “goods” or between two “bads”? Are these issues about more than solely what is legal or what is most efficient? If so, how?
What are the options for implementing this technology ethically to address the above? How can we make sure all the relevant persons and groups have been consulted? Are there other creative options?

Gameplay (4+ rounds):

each round, consider one of the articles
identify the stakeholders on whiteboard, select 10, write on stickies, put on cards
(skip step 4)
shuffle the 3 decks separately and deal
based on your RATING card, STAKEHOLDER card, and PRINCIPLES card combination you're dealt, write a review of that technology from the stakeholder's point of view
shuffle reviews and 1 person read reviews out loud, then discuss

CMSC 304

Social and Ethical Issues in Information Technology

Writing Week #1

Some notes about the writing process

Writing is very much like software development, and the similarities can help you as computer science students understand what's involved in writing in CS

Both writing and coding involve laying out logical and carefully organized complex ideas
Both writing and coding must follow a set of language rules
Writing and coding are both iterative processes, requiring successive refinements and re-factoring

Some notes about the writing process

Writing and coding are both iterative processes, requiring successive refinements and re-factoring
- If you've written large programs, you might laugh at the idea of writing code by starting at the top of a blank screen and proceeding linearly until finished, with a completed, correct program as the result
  - Same is true for writing! It's never completed in just one pass, and you shouldn't expect to start from top to bottom and then done
Anyone can learn to write well, but it requires practice
- just because you struggle with it now, doesn't mean you're stupid, inept, or naturally bad at it...you just need practice!
- and, no matter how practiced you are, writing = pain
  - occasionally there is joy to be found in this suffering, especially when it's over

Some notes about the writing process

Writing and coding are both iterative processes, requiring successive refinements and re-factoring
- If you've written large programs, you might laugh at the idea of writing code by starting at the top of a blank screen and proceeding linearly until finished, with a completed, correct program as the result
  - Same is true for writing! It's never completed in just one pass, and you shouldn't expect to start from top to bottom and then done
Computer Scientists often must write to persuade someone to adopt our point of view or take some action ("in our algorithm, we shouldn't encode race as a quantitative value because <xyz>")
- Persuasive writing requires understanding of the reader's interests, perspectives, and goals

Where to start?

We've already created an outline, maybe you put a few notes in there
Often the introduction and conclusion are hardest to write, because you have to sum up the whole paper! Its fine to save these for last
We're asked to make a recommendation based on our analysis, so let's save that for after we write those parts!
We need to summarize and expound on the stakeholders, their concerns, and ethical frameworks - let's start here!
Think about the paper, paragraphs, and sentences as DELICIOUS SANDWICHES

image generated by DALLE-2: "please give me an image of a sandwich made of essays in computer science"

Regarding the sandwiches: essay level

Regarding the sandwiches: paragraph level

Please check out this collection I've created for you!

tool: raindrop.io

Arguments + Claims

Evidence + Specifics

Structure + Flow

What is at stake?

Logical Fallacies

General Writing Tips 1

Why Make Arguments?

In order to have productive discussions, we need to have sound arguments
- otherwise, we will just talk in circles
- this is especially true in ethics discussions, when people are prone to emotional attachment to ideas
Arguments are "good"

An argument is a connected series of statements
The argument's purpose is to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true

Why Analyze Arguments?

This course is about learning to reason, not to intuit
- Reasoning requires critical thinking and logic
- You may intuitively feel something is unethical, but to convince others we should justify with evidence and logic

Is Truthiness Enough?

To argue, we need some critical thinking and logic, in addition to our intuitions
- Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments. It works by testing propositions against one another to determine their accuracy.
Some barriers to critical thinking:
- cognitive biases
- emotional reasoning
- overuse of personal experience
- over-reliance on small case studies
- over-reliance on authority (Myers, 2009)

truthiness: using a gut-sense feeling instead of empirical evidence or thinking to determine truth

Originally coined on the Colbert Report in 2005

https://limpohann.blogspot.com/2013/12/comforting-lies-bitter-truth.html

S. Kraus, S. R. Sears, and B. L. Burke, “Is Truthiness Enough? Classroom Activities for Encouraging Evidence-Based Critical Thinking,” vol. 13, no. 2, 2013.

Reasoning + Critical Thinking

Seven Steps:

What am I being asked to believe or accept?
What evidence is available to support the claim?
What alternative ways are there to interpret the evidence?
Rate the evidence/alternatives on 0-10 scale based on validity/strength
What assumptions or biases came up when doing the above steps? (e.g., using intuition/emotion, authority, or personal experience rather than science)
What additional evidence would help us evaluate the alternatives?
What conclusions are most reasonable or likely?

S. Kraus, S. R. Sears, and B. L. Burke, “Is Truthiness Enough? Classroom Activities for Encouraging Evidence-Based Critical Thinking,” vol. 13, no. 2, 2013.

Common Pitfalls

Avoiding the Burden of Proof
- Assuming the truth without evidence, and being too disinterested to find it
Avoiding the Issue
- Faulty thinking is to avoid the true issue
Avoiding Responsibility
- Over reliance on authority - authorities have been wrong before. Positions must be supported by evidence
Faulty Logic
- Carrying an argument to a ridiculous extreme
- Called logical fallacies
Attachment to ideas
- Try not to get too attached to ideas, just because they're yours. Try to keep an open mind, and think from others' perspectives

S. Kraus, S. R. Sears, and B. L. Burke, “Is Truthiness Enough? Classroom Activities for Encouraging Evidence-Based Critical Thinking,” vol. 13, no. 2, 2013.

Best Practices for Critical Thinking + Writing

Encourage debate and seek out alternative points of view
Construct more than one hypothesis to match the evidence. Beware untestable hypotheses - they cannot be used for the basis of critical reasoning.
Try not to get overly attached to an idea because it is yours, be fair and keep an open mind

From: http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/critical_thinking.html

First, some terminology

When discussing ethics works, it is important that we correctly identify the argument being made
An argument is a connected series of statements, including at least one premise, intended to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true.
- A premise is a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion
- A conclusion is the statement that is inferred (reasoned) from the argument’s premises
- Evidence sources include assertions, data, common belief, case studies, legal judgements, expert opinion, personal experience, quotes, statistics, etc
A common task is to examine the arguments made to support a claim.
- If the arguments are not strong, we might be able to identify a defect, or a fallacy (mistaken reasoning)

https://computer-ethics.com

Why Arguments

In order to have productive discussions, we need to have sound arguments
- otherwise, we will just talk in circles
- this is especially true in ethics discussions, when people are prone to emotional attachment to ideas
Arguments are "good"
A common task is to examine the arguments made to support a claim.
- If the arguments are not strong, we might be able to identify a defect, or a fallacy (mistaken reasoning)

An argument is a connected series of statements
The argument's purpose is to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true

"It is raining outside: I walked outside my front door this morning and I immediately got soaked by the rain. Every time it rains puddles form everywhere on the ground. Therefore, there must be puddles everywhere outside."

Identifying Argument Elements

https://www.educationworld.in/critical-thinking-the-critical-thinking-series-part-2-what-is-argument-mapping/

An argument is a connected series of statements
The argument's purpose is to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true
- A conclusion or contention is the statement that is inferred (reasoned) from the argument’s premises.
An argument should include at least one premise or reason
- A premise or reason is a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion.
The process by which we reason in order to reach a conclusion is referred to as inference.
A counterargument or objection is an opposing viewpoint or objection to the original argument.

An argument is a connected series of statements
An argument should include at least one premise
- A premise is a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion.
The argument's purpose is to demonstrate that a statement, the conclusion, is true
- A conclusion is the statement that is inferred (reasoned) from the argument’s premises
The process by which we reason in order to reach a conclusion is referred to as inference.

Identifying Argument Elements

Consider this passage:

Some people claim that we should not let immigrants enter the United States. This is because if immigrants are allowed to enter the U.S. they will take jobs away from U.S. citizens. There are only so many jobs available within the United States and the more people are available to fill the jobs, the steeper the competition for work will be. An objection to the idea that immigrants take jobs from U.S. residents is that there is a demonstrable increase in economic growth that comes with immigration. Thus immigration can actually create jobs for native-born citizens as opposed to taking them away.

https://www.educationworld.in/critical-thinking-the-critical-thinking-series-part-2-what-is-argument-mapping/

Your turn

Title: The Nuclear Dilemma: Is It Time to Reconsider Our Energy Future?

As the world races against the ticking clock of climate change, the conversation around nuclear energy is heating up. Often maligned for its association with catastrophic accidents, nuclear power is now being reconsidered by experts as a potential lifeline in our battle to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. According to the latest IPCC findings, nuclear energy boasts some of the lowest life-cycle CO2 emissions—outperforming even solar power. This might come as a surprise to those who have long touted renewables as the ultimate green solution.

But the benefits don’t stop at the environment. When it comes to safety, nuclear energy holds an impressive track record. Despite high-profile incidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima, statistics reveal that nuclear power results in fewer deaths per unit of energy produced than its fossil-fuel counterparts. This might make it the safest bet in an increasingly perilous energy landscape.

Yet, the shadow of disaster looms large. The potential for a nuclear accident—rare but devastating—cannot be ignored. The specter of radiation and long-term environmental damage makes many hesitant to embrace nuclear power fully. Opponents point to the catastrophic consequences of even a single failure, where the release of radiation can render areas uninhabitable for decades, displacing communities and causing severe health problems that persist for generations. The cleanup and containment efforts following such incidents often span years, with costs running into billions of dollars—costs that many argue outweigh the benefits of nuclear energy.

Moreover, there is the issue of nuclear waste, which remains hazardous for thousands of years. The challenge of safely storing this waste without harming future generations is a problem that remains unsolved, casting a long shadow over nuclear power's sustainability. Critics argue that by investing in nuclear energy, we are burdening future generations with a toxic legacy—one that they may not have the technology or resources to manage effectively.

As we stand at this energy crossroads, the question remains: Do we let fear dictate our choices, or do we boldly invest in the technology that could secure a cleaner, safer future? The answer is not simple. While nuclear power presents a compelling case for reducing greenhouse gases and improving energy security, the potential for disaster and the unresolved issue of nuclear waste remind us that the stakes are high. As the debate continues, one thing is clear: the future of energy will require careful consideration of both the promises and perils of nuclear power.

Course Rhythm

Title: The Nuclear Dilemma: Is It Time to Reconsider Our Energy Future?

Argument Structures

we can also look at the structure of arguments

Course Rhythm

Text

https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/criticalthinking1234/chapter/introduction/

From Concepts to Practice

The main claim must be debatable
- An argumentative or persuasive piece of writing must begin with a debatable thesis or claim.
- In other words, the argument must be something that people could reasonably have differing opinions on.
- If the claim is something that is generally agreed upon or accepted as fact then there is no reason to try to persuade people

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/establishing_arguments/index.html

Example of a non-debatable thesis statement: "Pollution is bad for the environment."

This thesis statement is not debatable.
The word pollution implies that something is bad or negative in some way.
All studies agree that pollution is a problem; they simply disagree on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem. No one could reasonably argue that pollution is unambiguously good.

Example of a debatable thesis statement: "At least 25 percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution."

Debatable thesis because reasonable people could disagree with it
Some people might think that this is how we should spend the nation's money. Others might feel that we should be spending more money on education. Still others could argue that corporations, not the government, should be paying to limit pollution.

From Concepts to Practice

Consider this example, where a writer wants to argue that the state minimum wage should be increased. The writer does not follow the guidelines for making a good argument

"It is obvious to anyone thinking logically that minimum wage should be increased. The current minimum wage is an insult and is unfair to the people who receive it. The fact that the last proposed minimum wage increase was denied is proof that the government of this state is crooked and corrupt. The only way for them to prove otherwise is to raise minimum wage immediately."
The paragraph does not build a logical argument:
1. It assumes that anyone thinking logically will already agree with the author, which is clearly untrue. If that were the case, the minimum wage increase would have already occurred.
2. The argument does not follow a logical structure. There is no development of premises which lead to a conclusion.
3. The author provides no evidence for the claims made.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/logic_in_argumentative_writing/logic_in_writing.html

CMSC 304

Social and Ethical Issues in Information Technology

back to start

Logical Flow for many-question prompts

Logical flow helps the reader move smoothly from one sentence to the next, and one paragraph to another.
- your ideas presented in each sentence should follow a thought process about that topic
Achieve a flow state with:
- Logical layout of content, addressing one point at a time in a reader-friendly, logical sequence
- Using transitions to blend sentences and paragraphs together
- Consistency of style, tone, tenses and punctuation
  - For example, if you are writing from a third-person perspective, and you suddenly switch to first-person, you will confuse your reader

Assume each paragraph in the body of the paper focuses on one of your claims from your argument
- It's fine to use more paragraphs per topic, but 1 is the absolute minimum
- If you can't write a whole paragraph about a claim, it either needs more depth or it needs deletion
Between paragraphs, use transitions to provide connections - show exactly how your ideas are connected
A transition sentence located at the end of a paragraph should hint at the next paragraph's contents

General tips for structuring papers: transitions

You can use a question to signal a shift:
…It’s clear, then, that the band’s biggest selling original compositions were written early in their career, but what do we know about their later works?
You could conclude by comparing the claim in the current paragraph with the claim in the next:
…While the Democratic Republic of Congo is rich in natural resources, it has led a troubled political existence.
An “if–then” structure is a common transition technique:
…If we are decided that climate change is now unavoidable, then steps must be taken to avert complete disaster.

Sentences also need transitions between them
- But don't do it for EVERY sentence, that would be weird
Often, the transition will act as an introduction to the next idea
You can use some handy transition words

General tips for structuring papers: transitions

To indicate addition: besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what’s more, moreover, in addition…
To indicate comparison: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, compared to, up against, balanced against, although, conversely, in contrast, although this may be true…
To indicate an example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, consider…

Words and ways to avoid

ChatGPT has been infamous for over-using certain phrases, so best to avoid them (even in your own original writing!)

rich tapestry
grapple
highlighting and underscoring

https://www.dropshippinghustle.com/words-chatgpt-uses-a-lot/

Another indicator of over-reliance on Dr. Chat's assistance in your writing is BEING EXTRA

"This pioneering essay will endeavor to illuminate the rich tapestry of ethics, highlighting the urgent need to navigate the revolutionary landscape of AI"

Words and ways to avoid

ChatGPT has been infamous for over-using certain phrases, so best to avoid them (even in your own original writing!)

rich tapestry
grapple
highlighting and underscoring

https://www.dropshippinghustle.com/words-chatgpt-uses-a-lot/

Another indicator of over-reliance on Dr. Chat's assistance in your writing is BEING EXTRA

"This pioneering essay will endeavor to illuminate the rich tapestry of ethics, highlighting the urgent need to navigate the revolutionary landscape of AI"

The audacity of that sentence...

Instead, keep it short + simple, with less drama:

"Increasing use of AI has signaled the need for increased ethical consideration."

Flow: Examples

Professor's essay prompt:

Write an essay on the use of computers in law enforcement. Issues include benefits to crime fighting, invasion of privacy, problems caused for innocent people because of errors in databases, etc. Describe cases where the computer system has been very helpful in catching a criminal, and describe cases where it has caused serious problems. What databases are typically accessed in these cases? How do they prevent unauthorized access? Have errors in NCIC been reduced? Who benefits the most? Who is harmed the most? What are some mitigation strategies?

Example of what NOT to do

Professor's essay prompt:

This essay is about the use of computers in law enforcement, which includes issues in crime fighting, invasion of privacy, problems caused for innocent people, etc. Some cases where the system has been helpful in catching criminals are in white collar crime and human trafficking. Some cases where where the system has not been helpful are in recidivism prediction. Some databases that are typically accessed in these cases are background check databases. They prevent unauthorized access by requiring a password. Errors in NCIC have not been reduced.

Example of what's better

Professor's essay prompt:

The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns. For example, databases used in background checks have helped solve white-collar crime and human trafficking cases. However, the same systems can lead to errors, such as incorrect recidivism predictions that unfairly impact innocent people. Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain. Ultimately, while law enforcement gains significant benefits, individuals affected by database errors often face the greatest harm, highlighting the need for careful mitigation strategies.

Example of what's better

Professor's essay prompt:

The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns. For example, databases used in background checks have helped solve white-collar crime and human trafficking cases. However, the same systems can lead to errors, such as incorrect recidivism predictions that unfairly impact innocent people. Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain. Ultimately, while law enforcement gains significant benefits, individuals affected by database errors often face the greatest harm, highlighting the need for careful mitigation strategies.

Example of what's better

The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns. For example, databases used in background checks have helped solve white-collar crime and human trafficking cases. However, the same systems can lead to errors, such as incorrect recidivism predictions that unfairly impact innocent people. Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain. Ultimately, while law enforcement gains significant benefits, individuals affected by database errors often face the greatest harm.

Transitions like "but," "however," "for example," and "although" create clear connections between ideas.
- "but" contrasts benefits (improved crime fighting) with concerns (privacy)
- "however" introduces drawbacks for a balanced argument: (+pro) they helped solve crimes, (-con) they have errors
"Ultimately" helps tie the argument together by summarizing the main tension and providing a concluding statement
Paragraph flow is logical: progresses from info --> benefits --> drawbacks --> summarizing the impact. This makes the paragraph cohesive rather than a list of disconnected points.

Flow Patterns

Here are some common patterns for global organization of your ideas. You can pick one, or use several:

Chronological (e.g., a history or a step-by-step process)
Grouping similar ideas (e.g., advantages / disadvantages; causes / effects)
Moving from large to small (e.g., national to local) or vice versa (local to national)
Assertion, evidence, reasoning (e.g., an argument essay)
Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion (e.g., lab reports)

https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/flow/

Writing with Specifics

What do you mean "specifics?"

I wrote that text specifically for this assignment!

In a majority of your text, you should write with specifics

Writing with Specifics

In a majority of your text, you should write with specifics

Write in a style that reduces vagueness, filler, unsubstantiated hyperbole, or persuasive statements without sauce
To understand the importance of being specific in your text, it can help to imagine you have received a restaurant bill for the wrong amount. Let’s say you ask the server to inquire:

Image generated by DALLE-2

You would probably be unsatisfied with that explanation for why your bill is so high, wouldn't you? You might even feel that you are being lied to or dismissed.
- It's not "clear" to you, and these mysterious “effects” are still unknown to you
- Think about what sort of answer would help you understand the breakdown of the bill, and write with that level of specificity

"Why is my bill so high??"

"a variety of effects contributed to the dollar amount, and it can be clearly seen that the total is correct"

In the philosophy of academic writing/communication, this is called “Bullshit”

Writing With Specifics

bullshit is defined as: speech intended to persuade without regard for evidence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Bullshit

"a variety of effects contributed to the dollar amount, and it can be clearly seen that the total is correct"

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	It doesn’t explain what kind of errors are being referred to or what specific efforts have been made. It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	It doesn’t explain what kind of errors are being referred to or what specific efforts have been made. It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	What kind of errors?? What specific efforts have been made? It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	What kind of errors?? What specific efforts have been made? It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	What kind of errors?? What specific efforts have been made? It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	What kind of errors?? What specific efforts have been made? It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Writing With Specifics

Original	Why it's bullshit	What's better
Although efforts have been made to reduce errors in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), challenges remain.	What kind of errors?? What specific efforts have been made? It would be helpful to mention the types of errors (e.g., incorrect criminal records, misidentifications) and the particular initiatives or reforms to address them.	"Although efforts have been made to reduce data inaccuracies in the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), issues like incorrect records and misidentifications still persist, often leading to significant consequences for individuals who are incorrectly flagged, such as x, y, and z."
The use of computers in law enforcement has improved crime fighting but also raised privacy concerns.	What privacy concerns? It's vague and just a filler term, which is then never addressed further. Either specify which privacy concerns and then discuss them, or remove the item	"The use of computers in law enforcement has enhanced investigative capabilities but has also led to significant privacy issues, such as increased surveillance, data breaches, and misuse of personal information."

Dr. Chat to the rescue?

bullshit is defined as: speech intended to persuade without regard for evidence

Dr. Chat to the rescue?