Hear Us Out! Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians, Pacific Islanders, and Their Music
Lesson 4:
Music and Colonialism in
Hawai`i and Other Pacific Islands
How has the long history of colonialism affected the lives and music cultures of Pacific Islanders and Native Hawaiians?
How have Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders resisted and continue to resist colonialism?
1898 Rosina Kalanikauwekiulani Ayers's "Hawaiian Coat-of-Arms" Quilt, by unknown artist. National Museum of American History.
Music and Colonialism in Hawaii and other Pacific Islands
CREATIVE CONNECTIONS
30+ MIN
25+ MIN
30+ MIN
HISTORY & CULTURE
MUSIC LISTENING
Pacific Islanders and Colonization
Component 1
30+ minutes
Kafa, unknown artist. AUVDIS-UNESCO.
Pacific Islands
In the early 19th century, French explorer Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville divided the region into three parts: Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.
There are tens of thousands of Pacific Islands. Today, this region includes 15 countries and territories/states of many different countries.
The Three Cultural Regions of the Pacific, by CartoGIS Services, CC-BY-SA-4.0, via Australian University College of Asia and the Pacific.
D'Urville's Tripartite Division
D'Urville's tripartite division was based on his observations of cultural, linguistic and phenotypic differences. It has based partly on out-of-date racial theories, and many see his boundaries as arbitrary.
Nonetheless, because scholars continue to disagree about the history of migration to the Pacific Islands, there is no widely accepted alternative. D'Urville's division is still used to organize museum collections and to influence the scope of scholars' research.
Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville, by Jérôme Cartellier. {{PD-US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
The Original Settlers
Take a Moment to Brainstorm:
How can we discover information about the original settlers of an island?
Some Possible Methodologies / Sources
- Archeology: Study and analysis of physical remains
- Genetics: Study of genes and heredity
- Linguistics: Study of the structure of languages
- Origin Stories: Study of oral history and ritualistic practices passed down on the island
As a class or in small groups, research and discuss what knowledge each methodology/source can generate, and what it can't.
More Reflection
Is knowledge about the original settlement of Pacific Islands useful?
What ethical issues are raised when we study the original settlement of any Pacific Island?
Austronesian Languages
The Indigenous languages of most Pacific Islands belong to the Oceanic branch of Austronesian languages. These include Fijian, Samoan, Tahitian, Chamorro (Mariana Islands, including Guam), Tongan, and Hawaiian.
Chronological Dispersal of Austronesian People across the Pacific, by Obsidian Soul, CC-BY-4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Papuan Languages
The Indigenous languages of Papua New Guinea and nearby islands often belong to the loose category of Papuan languages.
What does information about language groups tell you about the Pacific Islands?
Papua New Guinea
Australia
Indonesia
A Musical Interlude: Vanuatu
The recording we will listen to next is from the island of Futuna in southern Vanuatu, which is located over 1,000 miles to the east of northern Australia. (see arrow).
A Musical Interlude: Vanuatu
Listen to an excerpt:
When do you think it was recorded?
What do you think was the purpose of this music?
"Kafa"
"Kafa" used to be a feature of all-night rituals. It involved people seated on both sides of a long piece of bamboo. They would hit the bamboo to establish a beat, and chant over the beat.
This performance was recorded in 1990.
Listen again with this context in mind.
Colonialism and Traditional Music/Dance
From 1906 to 1980, France and Britain ruled Vanuatu through the "Anglo-French Condominium." Christian missionaries and authorities, often supported by colonial officials, discouraged traditional dances and disrupted these traditions. After Vanuatu achieved independence in 1980, the government has supported traditional culture. Nonetheless, you can hear Western influences in traditional music and dance practices today.
Cultural Dancers Welcome Participants of KOA MOANA and Guests with a Traditional Dance, by Grady Fontana. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, via Picryl.
Listening for Western Influences
Listen again.
Do you hear any Western influences in this performance?
Focusing on Hawaiʻi
The prevalence of Austronesian languages reveals a level of cultural kinship across many of the Pacific Islands. Nonetheless, there is significant diversity, partly because different islands had contrasting experiences with colonialism.
The remainder of this component focuses on one set of islands: Hawaiʻi.
The Geography of Hawaiʻi
Hawai'i is located in the far northeast of Polynesia. Created by volcanic activities, it consists of eight major islands. From west to east, they are: Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lanaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. There are also over 100 smaller islands.
The Settlement of Hawaiʻi
The earliest Hawaiians arrived from islands in the South Pacific. Estimates of when settlement began vary widely, from 400CE to 1100CE.
Given their origins, Hawaiian languages and cultures are closely related to those of the Marquesas and Society Islands (including Tahiti).
Indigenous Religion in Hawaiʻi
Indigenous religious practices are similar to those found on many other islands in Polynesia.
It is polytheist, involving the worship of many deities and spirits. Each family also has at least one guardian spirit.
Pu'ukoholā Heiau, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, National Park Service.
Kapu and Kahuna
Kapu was a code of conduct that stems from Indigenous Hawaiian religion, and it covered relationships between humans and deities, different groups of people (including gender roles and social classes), and people and nature.
The Mahiole, or Feathered Helmet, of Chief Kalani‘ōpu‘u, Given to James Cook in 1779, CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0, courtesy of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.
Members of nobility and kahunas (priests or wise men) were in charge of interpreting the kapu.
Hula to Reinforce Sociopolitical Systems
Before the 19th Century, hula dances--which involved chanting as well as percussion instruments including drums, gourds filled with seeds and bamboo rattles--served to reinforce the kapu. They honored deities, and praised chiefs and their ancestors.
Five of Ioane Ukeke's Hula Dancers, by A.A. Montano. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, via Picryl.
Hula is one of the most recognized art forms from Hawai'i.
First European Contact
Although Spanish ships might have landed in Hawai'i in the mid-16th century, the consequential contact occurred when an expedition led by James Cook arrived in 1778.
Cook was killed in Hawaiʻi in 1779. However, his expedition sparked the regular arrival of trading and whaling ships.
Top: Death of Cook, by James Cleveley. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}. Bottom: The Death of Captain James Cook at Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
The Founding of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi
One key result of these trading ships is that Kamehameha, the ruler of the Big Island, was able to secure superior weaponry. This gave him the military advantage he needed to conquer Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and eventually Oʻahu.
Kamehameha, King of the Sandwich Islands, by Louis Choris. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
In 1795, he founded and became the first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi.
Key Changes in 19th-Century Hawaiʻi
Beginning in the 1820s, Christian missionaries began arriving in Hawaiʻi, sparking many social changes.
Hawaiʻi became a chief producer of sugar in the mid-/late-19th century. Among the key reasons are:
- The Great Mahele of 1848 and Act of 1850 introduced the concept of private property and allowed foreigners to own land
- The American Civil War increased the price of sugar eightfold
Daniel Dole, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
Hula and Christian Missionaries
Since their arrival, many Christian missionaries have discouraged and--sometimes with the help of political elites--attempted to ban or heavily tax the teaching and performance of hula.
They were ultimately unsuccessful in eliminating hula, but the tradition had to be passed down in somewhat clandestine ways for many decades.
Hula Dancers, ca. 1856, unknown artist. Public Domain, {{PD-US-expired}} via Picryl.
Immigration to Hawaiʻi
American missionaries and sugar plantations brought immigrants from many countries. They included:
- Business, political and social elites from the U.S.
- Plantation workers from China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea and the United States (particularly African Americans)
Chinese Contract Laborers on a Sugar Plantation in 19th Century Hawaii, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US-Expired}}, via Picryl.
Overthrow and Annexation
As the 19th century proceeded, plantation owners and their allies demanded more power. They were willing to threaten and use force to gain it.
Liliuokalani, c. 1891, by James J. Williams. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
In 1893, they overthrew the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. President Grover Cleveland recognized the illegality of the overthrow, but failed to act.
In 1897, the new U.S. President--William McKinley--signaled his support for the annexation of Hawaiʻi. Congress ratified the annexation in July 1898.
Optional Listening: "Aloha Oe"
Queen Liliuokalani, the last ruler of the Kingdom of Hawai'i, was also a musician and songwriter. Her most famous composition was "Aloha Oe": A song about saying goodbye to someone you love.
Have you heard this song before? Where?
Does this music sound "Hawaiian" to you? Why?
To explore the complexities of identifying an authentic "Hawaiian sound," visit Component 2.
Listen to an excerpt from this instrumental version of the song.
Liliuokalani, by Menzies Dickson. National Portrait Gallery.
Hula Under Colonialism
With the abolition of the kapu system in 1819, increasing foreign incursions due to the establishment of sugar plantations, and the US annexation in 1898, hula needed a new purpose.
Hula Girls, 1920, by Harry Shipler. Public Domain {{PD -US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
Since the late 19th century, hula--now performed with guitars, ukuleles and other Western instruments--has become a centerpiece in Hawaiian tourism.
Early Native Hawaiian Resistance
Native Hawaiians have resisted U.S. colonialism even before the annexation.
Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, National Archives.
In an attempt to maintain their nation and to preserve their cultural identity, more than 21,000 Native Hawaiians (over half the population) signed a petition against annexation in 1897. This petition temporarily defeated annexation efforts, but legislation was passed a year later.
Native Hawaiian Renaissance
In the 1960s, a new movement to revive Native Hawaiian culture emerged.
Over the past half century, there have been great interest in reviving Hawaiian language, and traditional Hawaiian arts and crafts as they existed before the overthrow in 1893.
Kapa or Tapa Cloth, Hawaii, Collected before 1890, unknown maker. CC0 1.0, Peabody Museum, Harvard University.
Hula and the Hawaiian Renaissance
Small groups of dancers kept more traditional hula practices alive for over a century. Since the Hawaiian Renaissance in the 1970s, interest in traditional hula (or hula kahiko) has increased dramatically.
Excerpt of Hula Kahiko Performance at the Hawai'i Celebration 2017, uploaded by Smithsonian NMAI.
Does this match your expectation of what "hula" looks and sounds like? Why or why not?
Music and the Hawaiian Renaissance
Many musicians were active in the Hawaiian Renaissance. They promoted the use of slack-key guitars, steel guitars, falsetto singing, and other techniques and sounds that are now often seen as "authentically" Hawaiian.
Olomana, "Mele o Kahoʻolawe", uploaded by 8YASO.
See Component 2 to learn more about the complexities of identifying one “authentic” Hawaiian sound.
Learning Checkpoint
- How do scholars study societies that are based primarily on oral traditions (rather than written language)?
- What are some key effects of colonialism on Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders?
- How does the history of hula reflect the history of Hawai'i?
End of Component 1: Where will you go next?
What is
"Hawaiian Music"?
Component 2
25+ minutes
Kini Kapahu and Fellow Hula Dancer at the Midway Plaisance at the World's Columbian Exhibition, Chicago, 1893, by John B. Wilson. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Picryl.
Migration to Hawai'i Since the 19th Century
Hawai'i is a settler colonial state. It is a place where the Indigenous population, decimated largely by disease, is ruled by a colonial power, and is significantly outnumbered by migrants from the Americas, Asia and Europe.
Over the past two centuries, significant numbers of Native Hawaiians have also moved off the islands.
Spanish Children from the SS Heliopolis After Arriving in Hawaii, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
Racial Demographics in Hawai'i (2020 Census)
Total State Population: 1.46 million
- Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (alone or in combination): 27.1%
- Asian (alone or in combination): 56.6%
- White (alone or in combination): 41.9%
- Of Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity: 9.5%
These statistics show the prevalence of mixed-race identities in Hawai'i.
The Native Hawaiian Diaspora
Nearly as many Native Hawaiians live outside Hawai'i as inside the state.
Most leave to pursue better job and educational opportunities, and to places with lower living costs.
The vast majority of the Native Hawaiian Diaspora live on the continental United States, especially California.
What is "Hawaiian Music"?
Given the racial diversity in Hawai'i and the fact that nearly half of Native Hawaiians live outside the state, the definition of "Hawaiian music" is highly contested. Some key questions are:
- Is "Hawaiian music" about ethnicity and/or place?
- Are Native Hawaiians the only people who can make "Hawaiian music"?
- Is any music made by Native Hawaiians "Hawaiian music"?
- Can non-Native Hawaiians in Hawai'i make "Hawaiian music"?
- Can Native Hawaiians outside Hawai'i make "Hawaiian music"?
- Is the label "Hawaiian music" important? Why/why not?
Slack-Key Guitar
In this component, we will explore these questions through an examination of the slack-key guitar tradition.
For Ledward Kaapana (see video on right), what makes slack-key guitar music Hawaiian?
The Guitar Arrives in Hawai'i
It is unclear how the guitar arrived in Hawai'i. It might have been brought by:
- Portuguese sailors
- New England whalers
- Missionaries
- Returning Native Hawaiian sailors
- Merchants
The guitar was popular in Hawai'i by the mid-19th century.
What is Slack Key?
A slack-key guitar is a standard six-string guitar with reduced tension ("slackened") on one or more strings. The result is lower pitches. The open strings generally create a major chord. It is played "fingerstyle" (i.e., no picks).
Slack-Key Guitar Master Raymond Kane (1925-2008), by Tom Pich. National Endowment for the Arts.
There is no "standard" tuning for slack-key guitar. Traditionally, many players are very secretive about the tuning they use.
The Origins of Slack Key
The slack-key guitar tradition emerged in the mid-19th century, in the midst of momentous changes in Hawaiian society.
Kamehameha III (reigned 1825-54), unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Wikimedia Commons.
In 1848, a system of private property replaced a system where all lands were controlled by the kings or high chiefs. Shortly afterwards, foreign ownership of land was approved. For most Hawaiians (particularly commoners), these laws were experienced as land dispossession.
Origins: The "Accepted" Narrative
The development of private property led to the rise of foreign-owned ranches. To train Hawaiians to raise cattle, some owners imported Mexcian vaqueros (cowboys).
Many people, including numerous slack-key guitarists, believe that vaqueros brought their guitars to ranches. Hawaiian cowboys then localized the musical practices the vaqueros taught, thereby creating the slack-key guitar tradition.
Hawaiian Cowboy "Papale"-Style Hat. National Museum of American History.
Doubts about the "Accepted" Narrative
Several scholars have pointed out problems with the "accepted" narrative:
- The difficulty of ranch life would have made sustained music-making difficult.
- There are few or no Mexican/Spanish references in slack-key guitar songs.
- The first known reference to vaqueros appeared
140 years after the tradition supposedly emerged. - These ranches were multicultural spaces, not just Mexican and Native Hawaiian.
Hawaiian Paniolo (Cowboy), ca. 1900-1920, unknown artist. Public Domain {{PD-US-expired}}, via Picryl.
Slack-Key and the First Recording
The first known recording of slack-key guitar was made by Gabby Pahinui in 1946. The song is entitled "Hi'ilawe" (first part of video on right).
Overall, we know very little about the first century of the slack-key guitar tradition, as it remained music for private entertainment.
Gabby Pahinui - Hi'ilawe 1947, Luau Hula (1972), uploaded by lilacwine85.
Slack-Key and the Hawaiian Renaissance
Since the beginning of the Hawaiian Renaissance in the 1960s, slack-key guitar has been seen as a true expression of Native Hawaiian culture.
This was when the vaqueros theory gained traction. Sonny Chillingworth's "Waimea Cowboy" (vaqueros worked on ranches in Waimea) refers to this narrative.
"Waimea Cowboy," Sonny Chillingworth. Mahalo Records.
Why Has This Narrative Been So Important?
Scholar Kevin Fellezs argues that, for slack-key guitarists, ideas of the rural and Hawaiian cowboys (paniolos) offer the opportunity for recuperation.
Slack-key guitarists recognize that their tradition is unlike hula, which was established long before European contact. They show that "being Hawaiian" in contemporary society involves "mixing foreign and indigenous elements."
"Wai Okeaniani," Ledward Kaapana. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.
Time for Reflection
Having heard three examples of slack-key guitar songs:
- What do you think are key musical characteristics of this tradition?
- What do you think are key aesthetic characteristics of this tradition?
- Why do you think these songs are seen as recuperative spaces for Native Hawaiians?
Slack-Key and Nahenahe
Fellezs argues that the key aesthetic for the Hawaiian slack-key guitar tradition is nahenahe: an emphasis on softness, sweetness and melodiousness. Value is placed on achieving an "apparent effortlessness."
Leonard Kwan and Raymond Kane even recorded an instrumental called "Nahenahe."
"Nahenahe," Leonard Kwan and Raymond Kane. Tradewind Records.
Slack-Key and Native Hawaiian Cultural Values
Fellezs further argues that--to be accepted into the slack-key 'ohana (Native Hawaiian concept of extended family)--musicians must respect and practice key Native Hawaiian concepts, including:
- Kuleana (responsibility/prerogative)
- Aloha 'aina (love of the land/earth)
- Pono (holistic balance)
Hawaii Idyllic Landscape, by Pexels. CC0, via pixabay.com.
Slack-Key and Native Hawaiian Cultural Values
It is through the nahenahe aesthetic and the continued practicing of these Native Hawaiian cultural values that the slack-key guitar tradition can serve as a recuperative space under settler colonialism.
Learning Checkpoint
- What is a slack-key guitar and what musical characteristics are associated with this tradition?
- What is the "accepted" narrative about the origin of the slack-key guitar tradition? Why is this narrative problematic?
- How did the Hawaiian Renaissance affect the slack-key guitar tradition?
- What are key Native Hawaiian concepts that are associated with the slack-key guitar tradition?
End of Component 2: Where will you go next?
Music and Politics in Hawaii
Component 3
30+ minutes
Thirty Meter Telescope Blockade on Mauna Kea by Occupy Hilo. CC-BY-SA 2.0, via Flickr.
Music and Politics: Supporting the Establishment
Music can serve many political purposes. Some songs are used to support the status quo and those with power.
Text
"Hail to the Chief" was originally a Scottish Gaelic tune. For much of U.S. history, it has served as the personal anthem of the U.S. President. It is designed to praise and enhance the stature of presidents.
"Hail to the Chief" - "The President's Own" United States Marine Band. Uploaded by United States Marine Band.
Music and Politics: Fighting the Establishment
Some songs are used to protest existing structures as well as those with power.
Text
"We Shall Overcome" was originally a gospel song with lyrics descended from a hymn called "I'll Overcome Some Day." In the 20th century, the song was used in labor movements, and became the unofficial anthem of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. In this film (starting at 12:57), Joan Baez leads this song at the 1963 March on Washington.
Political Songs Come in All Styles
Political songs can come in all sorts of genres and formats. Some are meant for mass singing at protests and other events, but others are meant for solo performance.
One example is the anti-lynching song "Strange Fruit," which Billie Holiday recorded in 1939.
Billie Holiday - "Strange Fruit" Live 1959 [Reelin' In The Years Archives]. Uploaded by ReelinInTheYears66.
Using the Same Song for Multiple Purposes
Most of the time, national anthems are used to support the power of the state. However, as Colin Kaepernick and many others have shown, national anthems can also serve as sites for protest.
Listeners have argued about the meaning of Jimi Hendrix's performance of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Woodstock for 50 years. Is it protest, patriotism, sensationalism, or some combination of the three?
Anti-Colonial Hawaiian Songs Before Annexation
Even before the U.S. officially annexed Hawai'i in 1988, Native Hawaiians have been writing anti-colonial songs.
The most famous of these early songs is "Kaulana Nā Pua." Written by Ellen Keho`ohiwaokalani Wright Prendergast in 1893, the lyrics call annexation a "sin" that involves the "sale of native civil rights." In this video, Hawaiian participants at the Smithsonian Folklife Festival in 2013 sing this song.
Hawaiian Participants Sing "Kaulana Nā Pua". Smithsonian Folklife.
The Star of Anti-Colonial Hawaiian Music
Born in Kamala'ula on the island of Molokai, George Helm (1950-77) understood the potential of music as a political tool. He sang songs about Hawaiian land and history, and was a leader in the fight to get the U.S. Navy to stop using the island of Kahoʻolawe for bombardment training.
"Kamala'ula" was originally written by Emma Kala Dudoit in 1922. Helm sings it as a tribute to his hometown.
"Kalama'ula" performed by George Helm. Uploaded by The Orchard Enterprises.
George Helm
George Helm continues to be viewed as one of the greatest heroes of the "Aloha ʻĀina" ("Love of the Land") movement.
"Aloha ʻĀina" focused on land struggles, which includes demilitarization, the restoration of native ecology, and the revitalization of ancient practices.
In this video, native Hawaiian filmmaker 'Āina Paikai discussed why he made a Helm biopic entitled "Hawaiian Soul."
Hawaiian Soul: The Making of a Short Film About George Helm. Uploaded by Office of Hawaiian Affairs.
Mauna Kea Protests
Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano on the big island of Hawai'i. It is also a sacred site for Native Hawaiians.
In the 1960s, the U.S. government decided to build observatories on Mauna Kea. This quickly met opposition from many Native Hawaiians. This opposition strengthened radically after the building of the Thirty Meter Telescope at the top of Mauna Kea was proposed.
This photo shows the blockade line at the thirty meter telescope protest on October 7, 2014.
Mauna Kea Protests and Music
These protests have led to the creation of several dozen protest songs.
The unofficial anthem of the movement is a 2007 song by Hinaleimoana Wong entitled "Kū Ha’aheo E Ku’u Hawai’i" ("Be Proud of My Hawaiians").
Reflection
Now that you have studied many political songs (both pro- and anti-establishment), discuss the following questions as a class or in small groups:
- Which songs are most and least meaningful to you? Why?
- What makes political songs effective? How does a pro-establishment song lend support to the status quo? How does an anti-establishment song help lead to change?
Write Your Own Song: Option 1
For those who want to create a new melody, consider these steps:
- Choose a political topic that is important to you.
- Think of a persuasive story that can help you promote your point of view.
- Write the lyrics: follow a familiar structure (e.g., verse-chorus, verses with the same final line), same number of syllables per line, use a rhyming structure.
- Write a melody that fits the lyrics.
- Learn the song you wrote and teach it to some classmates.
Write Your Own Song: Option 2
For those who prefer using an existing melody:
- Choose a political topic that is important to you.
- Think of a persuasive story that can help you promote your point of view.
- Choose a familiar melody. This will allow people to learn the song quickly.
- Write the lyrics that follows the structure of the melody you chose.
- Learn the song you wrote and teach it to some classmates.
More Reflection
-
To what extent can performers and listeners alter the meaning of a political song?
-
In what ways is writing a political song easy? In what ways is it challenging?
-
How might your song be a useful political tool?
-
To what extent is the political nature of a song determined by the song's melodies and lyrics?
Learning Checkpoint
- How is the song you wrote/arranged similar to other songs we studied in this component (and how is it different)?
- How can music be an effective political tool?
- How have Native Hawaiians used music for political purposes?
End of Component 3 and Lesson 4: Where will you go next?
Lesson 4 Media Credits
© 2022 Smithsonian Institution. Personal, educational, and non-commercial uses allowed; commercial rights reserved. See Smithsonian terms of use for more information.
This project received Federal support from the Asian Pacific American Initiatives Pool, administered by the Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center.
For full bibliography and media credits, see Lesson 4 landing page.
Audio courtesy of
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
Video courtesy of
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
National Museum of the American Indian
Office of Hawaiian Affairs
Images courtesy of
National Museum of American History
National Park Service
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongrewa
National Portrait Gallery
National Archives
National Endowment for the Arts