Component 1

30+ minutes

Fiesta Nacional de la Danza Poster, unknown artist. The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture.

Dancing Danza

Paseo section:

• Men formally ask and escort a lady to the dance floor.
• Couples link arms and complete a circuit of the ballroom.
• Women model their gowns and flutter their fans with elegance.
• On the final dominant chord, women collapse their fans snappily, cueing the beginning of the merengue section. 

Merengue section:

• Couples assume a formal closed ballroom stance, executing a variety of steps and turns while moving in a circle around the dance floor.
• Dancers often perform a slow-quick-quick pattern with their feet.

Watch Danza

Is this what you thought it would look like?

La Danzas Puertorriqueña, featuring La Compañia Folklórica de Puerto Rico, uploaded by elegui22.

Isorhythms in Danza

Another important characteristic of danza is the use of isorhythms, especially:

• Habanera
• Tresillo
• Cinquillo

Can you clap these rhythms?

Attentive Listening:  Instruments

Listen to a recording of a a danza called "Laura y Georgina".

What instruments can you identify?

Travelling Virtuoso Louis Moreau Gottshalk

In his danzas Gottschalk anticipates the sounds and syncopation of ragtime, one of the first forms of early jazz.

Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), cover by Carol Hardy. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Louis Moreau Gottschalk, a virtuoso pianist from New Orleans, toured the Caribbean composing music inspired on local rhythms he heard during his travels. 

In Puerto Rico he composed “Danza, Opus 33” and “Souvenir de Porto Rico, Opus 31:  Marche des Gibaros.”

"Danza Op. 33"

"Souvenir de Port Rico: Marcha de Los Jibaros"

Danza: Adding Lyrics

Most famously, "La Borinqueña," the vocal danza that is the Puerto Rican national anthem, continues to be very relevant locally and in diasporic circles.

La Borinquena - UAW Puerto Rican National Anthem, featuring the UAW Region 9A Choir from Puerto Rico, uploaded by United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (UAW).

Listen to this sung version of "La Borinqueña:

Can you recognize and clap any isorhythms?

Over time, composers began to set text to preexisting danza compositions to create vocal danzas and choral arrangements.

Fiesta and Danza: Carnival

Left: Puerto Rican Vejigante Mask, unknown artist. National Museum of American History. Vejigantes are sometimes used to symbolize "evil". Above: Image of Santiago de los Niños, photo by Jaime O. Bofill Calero. Santiago Apóstol often symbolizes "good" and protection against evil.

Danza is no longer practiced widely as a ballroom dancing activity, although it is sometimes performed at formal private events (e.g., weddings) or cultural festivals.

In the public sphere, danza continues to be practiced during Carnival festivities—which are widespread throughout Latin America and the Caribbean.

Although each Carnival variant is culturally unique, one element they all share is the metaphoric struggle between good and evil.

Carnival: Musical Symbols

Danza is performed at the beginning and very end of the celebration:

• It symbolizes the sacred and the upper class.
  • It is used for the more religious parts of the celebration (e.g., during the procession and stops at local cemeteries).

Bomba and Plena are played during the second half of Carnival:

• They symbolize the profane (not sacred) and the lower, working classes.
  • They are used for dancing and partying.

During Carnival, the theme of good and evil is also represented in the role music plays in the celebration.

• In Ponce, the city where danza emerged, Carnival is structured according to perceived ideas of music and social class.

Learning Checkpoint

• What are the defining musical and cultural characteristics of Puerto Rican danza?
• What role does danza music play Puerto Rican fiestas, such as Carnival?

End of Component 1: Where will you go next?

Attentive Listening: "Mi Gente"

"Mi Gente," performed by Héctor Lavoe.

What type of music is this?

Where is it from?

What is it for?

What is Salsa?

Fact: The term salsa is a commercial label (created by the music industry) to classify several types of dance music that incorporate elements of various Latin American and Caribbean music cultures, and US big-band jazz.

Integrating Historical Context: Salsa Roots

Cuban influences:

• Son music and the sounds of the son conjunto (ensemble that plays this music)

Puerto Rican influences:

• Folkloric music traditions, such as música jíbara, plena, and bomba

Although salsa is a transnational genre that developed in the United States, its strongest influences come from Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Above: Sextetos Cubanos, designed by Wayne Pope. Arhoolie Records.

Right: El Alma de Puerto Rico, designed by Galen Lawson. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

The Son Conjunto

A typical conjunto consisted of:

• Chordophones (string instruments): violin, guitar, bass, and tres (i.e., three-course, double-string instrument).
• Membranophones (drums): timbales, congas, and bongos.
• Idiophones: güiro, claves, and maracas.

In the city, son adapted to the taste of its new audience: The ensemble expanded and became known as conjunto.

Above: Signed Timbales, Used by Tito Puente in the Closing Ceremonies of the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, made by Latin Percussion, Inc., photo by Michael Ivan Avalos. National Museum of American History. Right: Tres Cubana, by Claireislovely, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

In the 1920s, people living in rural areas who were looking for employment opportunities or in military service migrated to urban centers such as Havana city, bringing son music with them

REVIEW FOR DELETION

 Attentive and Engaged Listening: Chord Progressions

As we learned earlier, one characteristic of son music is simple chord progressions.

Listen to an excerpt from "Guantanamera" again.

Can you identify the chord progression?

Can you hum the root note of each chord while listening?

"Guajira Guantanamera," by Cuarteto Patria Featuring Company Segundo

"Seis Fajardeño," by Cuerdas de Borínquen

REVIEW FOR DELETION

Integrating Context: Fania Records

Salsa was promoted by New York-based small independent record labels. These independent businesses formed because major labels did not want to record and promote the music of Latino immigrants.

Recordando El Ayer, unknown designer. Fania Records. Album cover from 1976 featuring  (from left): Johnny Pacheco, Celia Cruz, Papo Lucca, and Justo Betancourt. Courtesy of the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Founded in 1964 by Johnny Pacheco (a Dominican-born flautist, composer, and bandleader) and Jerry Masucci (an Italian American and former NYPD officer turned lawyer), Fania Records was the most important label of the emerging Latin market.

• Pacheco and Masucci are actually credited with giving the genre its name, salsa.

Salsa and Representation

Salsa also became a popular tool for social and political activism and was associated with issues and movements such as:

• Protests for the independence of Puerto Rico
• Protests against the Vietnam War
• The Black Power movement
• The emergence of a Puerto Rican youth organization called the Young Lords

Young Lords Party - Health, Food, Housing, Education, by Young Lords Organization. National Museum of American History.

Fania’s success was linked to the unprecedented growth of Hispanic Caribbean and Latin American immigrant communities in New York: Salsa expressed Latin American-ness, and urban sophistication.

Salsa Consciente (Socially Conscious Salsa)

Listen to “Plantación Adentro” sung by Rubén Blades.  The song deals with the colonial oppression of plantation life suffered by indigenous and black people during 18th century in Latin America. The song is allegorical of the systemic racism and marginalization that these groups still face today in contemporary society.

Catalino "Tite" Curet Alonso, by Samuel Collazo. Via Flickr.

Though salsa became very popular as a dance music, it was also used to voice injustices regarding long standing social issues such as racism, gender, inequality and colonialism in Latin America. Puerto Rican composer Catalino “Tite” Curet Alonso was one of the leading voices of salsa consciente, or "salsa with a message." Among his most celebrated songs are “Las Caras Lindas (de Mi Gente Negra),” “Sorongo,” and “Plantación Adentro”. 

Plantación Adentro, by Rubén Blades. Uploaded to YouTube by Universal Music Group.

The Men of Salsa

Impotant Fania artists included Ray Barretto (conga player), Willie Colón (trombonist and composer), Charlie and Eddie Palmieri (pianists), Hector Lavoe (singer), Johnny Pacheco (flautist), and Tito Puente (timbales player), all of Puerto Rican descent and Cuban singer Celia Cruz. 

There is no denying that salsa was a male–dominated industry: Most compositions were by men, song lyrics reflected the male perspective, and album covers highlighted male salsa artists.​

Fania All Stars: Latin-Soul-Rock, unknown designer. Fania Records. Courtesy of the National Museum of African American History and Culture.

Celia Cruz: "Guantanamera"

Watch a live recording (1974) of Celia Cruz's interpretation of "Guantanamera".

"Mi Gente," performed by Héctor Lavoe.

Fania All Stars "Live in Africa" - Guantanamera Featuring Celia Cruz. Fania Records.

Tito Puente: The King of Timbales

One of the most iconic figures of the salsa scene in NYC and life-long musical companion to Celia Cruz was Tito Puente.

Puerto Rican Parade, New York City, 1987 (Tito Puente, Grand Marshal), unknown photographer. National Museum of American History.

A Puerto Rican American musician, songwriter, record producer, and bandleader, Tito was the first to move the timbales to the front of the band.

• This earned him nicknames like "The Musical Pope" and "The King of Timbales".

Engaged Listening: "Mambo Beat"

The cáscara (peel) is another distinctive rhythm of salsa.

• It is a pattern of 8 eighth notes, played on timbales.

Listen to "Mambo Beat" by Tito Puente & His Orchestra. Tap the cáscara and clave.

Cascara Transcription, created by and used with permission of  Edwin E. Porras.

Héctor Lavoe: El Cantante

Héctor Lavoe was another very important name in the New York City salsa scene.

Héctor Lavoe, by Adál. National Portrait Gallery.

He was known for his clear vocal delivery and charismatic stage presence.

One of his most famous songs was "Mi Gente"—which is considered by many to be the unofficial "Nuyorican" national anthem.

Attentive Listening: Structure

This song follows a very common structural pattern in salsa music: A verse-chorus formula.

• The verse section (at the beginning) tells a story.
• The chorus section (called coro) is more rhythmic: it consists of repeated short melodic phrases (vocal or instrumental riffs, often call and response form), and improvisation (vocal and instrumental).

Let's return to "Mi Gente" (performed by Héctor Lavoe), listening specifically for structural characteristics.

The chorus (coro) section is often much longer than the verse section at the beginning.

Engaged Listening: Anticipated Bass Line

Another significant characteristic of salsa music is the role of the bass line: It usually omits the first beat and anticipates harmonic changes on the fourth beat.

Anticipated Bass Line Example - Key of C, notated by and used with permission of Jennifer Mellizo.

Engaged Listening: Montuno

In salsa music, the term montuno is used to refer to a repeated syncopated pattern, often played by the piano.

 Montuno Pattern Example - Key of C, notated by and used with permission of Jennifer Mellizo.

Engaged Listening: Coro Section

Let's listen to the coro (chorus) section specifically. Some ideas for engagement:

• Clap along with the steady beat (cowbell).
• Listen for and sing along with the response (que cante mi gente).
• Listen for and tap along with the cascara (timbales). 
• Listen for and hum along with the anticipated bass line or montuno.
• Listen for and sing along with the moña (played by wind instruments).

Cascara Transcription, created by and used with permission of  Edwin E. Porras.

Are you teaching this lesson within the context of a music performing ensemble? If so - consider adding "Mi Gente" to your performance repertoire this year!

• In Volume IV of the Routledge World Music Pedagogy series, instrumental music educators Mark Montemayor, William J. Coppola, and Christopher Mena provide many more ideas and strategies for teaching "Mi Gente" within the context of a performance ensemble.

Although we highly recommend encouraging students to learn their parts "by ear" as much as possible, this transcription/arrangement of "Mi Gente" might be helpful as the learning process unfolds.

World Music Pedagogy Vol. IV. Routledge.

End of Component 2: Where will you go next?

Return to Pathway homepage:

Fiesta Aqui, Fiesta Alla: Music of Puerto Rico

The Reggaeton Revolution

Component 3

30+ minutes

Ivy Queen, by Lunchbox Studios. CC BY 2.0, via Flickr.

Attentive Listening: "Gasolina"

What is it for?

What type of music is this?

Where is it from?

What is Reggaeton?

Reggaeton is most frequently associated with Puerto Rico ... but it is also a circum–Caribbean phenomenon:

• It has developed (and continues to develop) based on cultural dialogue among people from many nations (e.g., Puerto Rico, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago, United States).

In this video, Ivy Queen (the "Queen of Reggaeton") gives a brief introduction to the genre.

Introducing LOUD: The History of Reggaeton with Ivy Queen. Spotify.

History of Reggaeton: The Panamanian Connection

The history of reggaeton can actually be traced all the way back to the construction of the Panama Canal in the early 1900s.

• The project attracted many workers from Jamaica, the Caribbean region, and Central America, many of whom settled in Panama permanently after.

Walls of Miraflores Lock, Panama Canal, by Joseph Pennell. Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum.

History of Reggaeton: Reggae en Español

In the 1960s and 1970s, Panamanian DJs of Jamaican descent began to create new versions of classic Jamaican dancehall hits.

• These versions, which incorporated Spanish lyrics and rhythmic elements of Latin popular dance music, became known as reggae en español.

Reggae en español Panamá. Courtesy of Jorge Luis Troya.

His two greatest hits "Muevelo" (Shake It) and "Te Ves Buena" ("You Look Good), which gained wide popularity in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Spanish-speaking US states, featured a rhythm known as dem bow.

History of Reggaeton: "El General"

A young Jamaican Panamanian musician who went by the stage name of "El General" broke into the music scene with what is considered the first instance of commercial reggae en español in the 1980s.

Listen for it and tap along.

The dem bow rhythm, adopted from Jamaican dancehall music, is one of the most important and recognizable elements of reggaeton.

Breaking Down Reggaeton: Dem Bow Rhythm and More

Watch this short video to learn more about the den bow rhythm and other essential characteristics of reggaeton.

What is Reggaeton? Reggaeton Explained in Two Minutes, by Dave Wave.

Reggaeton Takes Off in Puerto Rico

The sounds of reggaeton reached Puerto Rico in the late 1980s/early 1990s, and this is when the music really started to gain momentum.

• It became very popular among youth in urban, impoverished areas—who were looking for ways to express themselves. It was raw and confrontational and talked about what was happening in the streets of Puerto Rico.

Reggaeton Puerto Rico, unknown artist. ClipartSVG.

Reggaeton Goes Commercial

A significant moment in reggaeton history occurred in 2003, when Francisco Saldaña and Victor Cabrera (collectively known as Luny Tunes) produced Mas Flow (More Flow)—a compilation album that featured various artists, rapping to reggaeton "beats". Among these rappers were Don Omar and Daddy Yankee.

Billboard Awards Red Carpet - Daddy Yankee & Don Omar, video still by Al Vazquez. CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

By the mid–1990s, Puerto Rican musicians such as DJ Blass were creating albums based on the dem bow rhythm and Spanish–language rap, a process that launched the era of commercial reggaeton.

Reggaeton in the Continental US

In the early 2000s, reggaeton found enthusiastic audiences in places like Los Angeles, Miami, and New York.

• Daddy Yankee's 2004 song "Gasolina" (which we listened to earlier) is credited as the first reggaeton "hit" in the United States.
  • It catapulted to the top of several charts and was nominated for a Latin Grammy.
• Although reggaeton was initially received negatively by critics, who dismissed it as "vulgar", it has gained widespread popularity in the US and all over the world.

Daddy Yankee, still by unknown videographer. CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The Hip Hop Connection

Among them, Vico C. emerged as one of the most influential Puerto Rican rap artists.

Hip hop is often listed as an influence of reggaeton.

Although not often discussed, Puerto Ricans played an important role in the development of hip–hop in the United States. By the mid-1980s, Spanish-language rap had a strong presence in New York, with many artists creating their own music and rhymes.

Reggaeton ... A Genre in Progress

Reggaeton (like many music genres) continues to evolve.

E-mu SP-12 Drum Machine, by E-mu Systems, Inc. National Museum of American History.

• Reggaeton MCs sample widely from other Latin American dance music genres, such as merengue, bachata, bolero, cumbia, and salsa.

• Certain songs exhibit a distinct sense of pan-Latino youth identity, exemplified through the prominent use of the dembow groove, coupled with the use of technology (e.g., synthesizers, drum machines) and sound effects (e.g., reverb, echoes, auto-tune).

Bad Bunny blends reggaeton with a musical style known as trap—subgenre of hip hop that often has darker lyrics and heavier beats that are not quite as "danceable".

Bad Bunny is currently one of the most popular music artists in the world. In 2022, his album Un Verano Sin Ti was Billboard's top performing album of the year. He has been Spotify's most streamed artist for the past three years (2020–2022). and has broken the record for tour revenue in a calendar year.

Reggaeton ... A Genre in Progress

Ivy Queen: The Queen of Reggaeton

 "That was the most amazing thing I’d ever seen . . . The colorful hair, the colorful gear, her grace, the way she walked, her voice, of course. She was surrounded by men, but she was calling the shots. That was like a shock to me, because they recorded her while she was walking through the hallway to get on stage; the guys all moved to the side. When she started singing, and that’s it — it was over!"

In this male–dominated industry, Ivy Queen’s career is a continuation of the historic struggle of women in the Latin music scene.

She recalls watching a Fania All-Stars concert on TV in 1974, featuring Celia Cruz:

Ivy Queen, by Lunchbox Studios. CC BY 2.0, via Flickr.

Ivy Queen: The Queen of Reggaeton

Listen what Ivy Queen has to say about her experiences, her rise to fame, and women's empowerment:

Ivy Queen Talks About Her Rise as a Musician, the History of Reggaeton, Women Empowerment, & Legacy. Jazzy's World TV.

 "I started to hear 'La Diva' from the gay community, a lot. Every time I go to the club, they’re snapping fingers, ‘Oh, La Diva’s here, mama, work it! The gay community has been a huge part of my career. They have always [done] shows, imitating me. . . I embrace them."

Ivy Queen: "La Diva"

Ivy Queen has many fans from LGBTQ+ communities in Puerto Rico, who have given her the moniker "La Diva". She said:

In 2017, feminist and LGBTQ+ collectives began organizing dance parties, featuring reggaeton.

Image cropped from Ivy Queen,

by Lunchbox Studios.

CC BY 2.0, via Flickr.

Redefining Perreo

At dance parties and events organized by LGBTQ+ and feminist groups, perreo has been reinterpreted (a movement dubbed perreo combativo) and used to create liberated communal spaces.

These spaces have helped women redefine their identity and role in society and to reclaim their sexuality, by leading and controlling the intensity of the dance and establishing boundaries for their partners. 

These inclusive spaces defy misogynistic, homophobic, and transphobic sentiments and open the door to important conversations about consent.

Reggaeton as Activism

As an expression of the lower economic classes (working–class immigrants), since its beginnings as an "underground" musical form in the 1990s, reggaeton lyrics have unveiled issues of social inequality, racism, police violence, marginalization, and the hypocrisy of the Puerto Rican elite. For example:

• Daddy Yankee’s "Abuso Oficial" (Police Abuse)
• "Somos Raperos Pero no Delincuentes" (We Are Rappers, Not Criminals) by the Queen of Reggaeton, Puerto Rican MC, Ivy Queen.

These songs condemn generalizations that normalized the idea that poor Afro-Puerto Ricans were part of a violent culture that needed to be censored.

Reggaeton as Political Voice

In this context, reggaeton became the ideal medium for people to express political critique, resist state censorship and criminalization, and defy homophobia, racism, and misogyny.

In 2019, reggaeton music was deployed on the streets as part of a series of protests related to the "Telegramgate" scandal, also known as "Chatgate" or "RickyLeaks".

• Ricardo Rosselló, Governor of Puerto Rico (2017–2019), sent hundreds of vulgar, racist, and homophobic messages to a group chat on an app called Telegram.
• The messages, which also proposed media strategies to target his political opponents, were leaked!
• Enraged, the gay, queer, trans and non-binary youth community in Puerto Rico (and allies) flooded the streets, asking for the Governor’s resignation.

Can you think of other examples of music being used for political purposes?

Olé, Olé, Olé

In 2019, Ricardo Rosselló resigned live on Facebook, and the streets were flooded by celebrating protestors singing and dancing to the rhythm of reggaeton.

• On social media, Puerto Ricans delivered reggaeton’s coup de grâce (mortal blow) to the corrupt government, using phrases such as "El Perreo Ganó" (perreo overcame) and "Sin Perreo No Hay Revolución" (There’s No Revolution Without Perreo).

Protestors Chanting "Ricky Renuncia" Outside the Governor's Mansion, by Ricardo Alcaraz. AMS Musicology Now.

Learning Checkpoint

• What are some influences of reggaeton?
• What is the defining musical characteristic of reggaeton?
• Who are some important reggaeton MCs?
• How has reggaeton served political purposes and contributed to the LGBTQ+ movement in Puerto Rico?

End of Component 3 and Lesson 9: Where will you go next?

Lesson 9 Media Credits

Audio courtesy of​

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Video courtesy of

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Smithsonian Music

Smithsonian American Women's History Museum

Images courtesy of

Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture

University of Texas at Austin, PCLP Map Collection

The New York Public Library's Digital Collection

National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution

National Museum of American History

National Museum of African American History and Culture

Anacostia Community Museum, Smithsonian Institution

Routledge

Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum

Ricardo Alcaraz

© 2021 Smithsonian Institution. Personal, educational, and non-commercial uses allowed; commercial rights reserved. See Smithsonian terms of use for more information.

This project received Federal support from the ... administered by the Smithsonian ....

For full bibliography and media credits, see Lesson 9 landing page.