In what ways have issues related to gender affected Chicana identity before, during, and after the Chicano movement?
Dolores Huerta, by Barbara Carrasco. National Portrait Gallery.
The overarching essential question for Lesson 10 is:
Portrait of the Artist as Guadalupe, by Yolanda M. López. Archives of American Art.
30+ minutes
Dolores Huerta Speaks at UFW Rally, unknown photographer. Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University.
“Through her example as a labor and civil rights leader, and her challenge to norms that restricted women’s role in society, Dolores Huerta became an early symbol of female power for the Chicano and feminist movements” (National Portrait Gallery).
Dolores Huerta, Delano, California, by Harvey Richards. Courtesy of the Harvey Richards Media Archive.
Watch this video (produced by the National Portrait Gallery), which provides a brief overview of Dolores Huerta’s life and contributions during the time of the Chicano movement.
She was a fierce negotiator and worked tirelessly to bolster the morale of workers on the picket line.
Dolores Huerta Speaking at a Rally, by Rudy Rodriguez. National Portrait Gallery.
Dolores Huerta was instrumental in achieving major legal protections and a better standard of living for farm workers.
Huerta was also instrumental in achieving major legal protections and a better standard of living for farm workers. Although many of her efforts were successful, Dolores Huerta remains largely under-acknowledged in history.
This decision was likely a reflection of traditional gender role expectations during this time (within American society in general and Chicano culture more specifically).
When Dolores Huerta and César Chávez co-founded the National Farmworkers Association in 1962, they agreed that he would be the public face of the union and she would handle the logistics.
Although many Chicanas were actively involved in movement-related efforts, they rarely occupied leadership roles.
Above: César Chávez During the March to Sacramento, photo by Harvey Richards. Courtesy of the Harvey Richards Media Archive.
“The Chicana is born into a life pattern that we see again and again. If she finishes her secondary education, she is lucky… eventually she will marry and become pregnant… from birth, her life is a predestined pattern based on passing from her parents’ control to that of her husband” (Brotando del silencio liner notes).
In her refection on traditional Chicana/o gender roles in the 1960s and 1970s, Chicana author Betita Martinez reflected:
Women of the United Farm Workers Singing at a Rally, Early 1970s, by Diana Jo Davies. Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections, Smithsonian Institution.
Dolores Huerta conformed to these gender expectations in certain ways.
For example, she married for the first time when she was in college, and ultimately raised eleven children.
But ...
According to Dolores herself, the growers sometimes complained because they were not used to dealing with women. They expected her to be polite . . . but she refused to be polite to people who were making racist and sexist comments.
... Dolores defied gender expectations in other ways. For example, she assertively used her voice to drive hard bargains with powerful growers.
Dolores Huerta and Fred Ross, by Cathy E. Murphy. National Portrait Gallery.
Betita Martinez (a Chicana author) argued Chicanas’ attitudes about societal/cultural gender expectations (and related sexism) during the time of the Chicano movement generally fell into the following four categories:
With which of these positions do you think Dolores Huerta most closely aligned and why?
In 2019, the Oakland Symphony honored Dolores Huerta with a concert entitled Sí Se Puede: Dolores Huerta’s Playlist.
Huerta, who was 89 years old at the time, selected a wide variety of musical compositions that were important to her, ranging from Carlos Santana’s "Novus" to Igor Stravinsky’s "Firebird."
As the concert closer (and sing-along), Dolores chose the song "This Little Light of Mine."
Dolores Huerta in 2019, by Jay Godwin. Wikimedia Commons (U.S. Code § 105).
Listen to this live version of the song "This Little Light of Mine."
As you listen, think about the following guiding question:
In what ways is this version of "This Little Light of Mine" the same as or different than other versions you have heard?
What are the origins of this song?
In what context (and when) do you think this recording was made?
Fannie Lou Hamer at 1965 Newport Folk Festival, by Diana Jo Davies. Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections, Smithsonian Institution.
Although it is difficult to trace the exact origins of the song "This Little Light of Mine," it appears to have originated as a children’s song and, over time, became a spiritual.
This song became popular during the civil rights movement because it “gave people a sense of strength and courage in the face of seemingly insurmountable opposition from white supremacists” ( - Songs My Mother Taught Me liner notes).
Dolores Huerta was particularly fond of the version we've been listening to, recorded by civil rights activist, Fannie Lou Hamer, in 1963.
What was Dolores Huerta's "light" and how did she let it shine during the time of the Chicano movement?
Dolores Huerta, by Barbara Carrasco. National Portrait Gallery.
... this song remains as relevant today as it was during the time of the civil rights and Chicano movements. In 2019, she stated:
“Her [Hamer's] ‘This Little Light,’ we need it now. It’s such an important moment in our history. Our light has to shine, it has to shine in this world. It gives people hope and energy to take action” (San Francisco Classical Voice).
Dolores Huerta in 2019, by Jay Godwin. Wikimedia Commons (U.S. Code § 105).
Sing along with Fannie Lou Hamer’s live recording of "This Little Light of Mine"!
As you sing, consider Dolores Huerta's words . . .
Walking the Park the Morning and Ray Light, by Nawa Photography, CC-BY-3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
30+ minutes
Women of the Brown Beret, by Patricia Borjon-Lopez, PD US no notice, via Wikimedia Commons.
This is a song that was written during the time of the Chicano movement. As you follow along with the lyrics, think about this question:
What is the message of this song?
Suni Paz (with friends) wrote and recorded this song in 1972 as part of an album called Brotando del silencio (Breaking out of silence).
Brotando del silencio: Breaking Out of the Silence, cover designed by Collective Graphics Workshop, Inc. Paredon Records.
The song’s title, "Quiero decirte," means: I want to tell you something.
The lyrics of this song remind Chicanos and Chicanas that they must work together in the fight to liberate themselves from oppression.
La raza - Chicano Power!, unknown artist. Kenneth Spencer Research Library.
Through the lyrics of this song, Suni Paz gives advice to both women and men in the Chicana/o community:
Woman Rolling Tortillas, by Russell Lee. Library of Congress.
Read the linked excerpt from the Brotando del silencio liner notes.
Within this essay, Betita Martinez (Chicana author) shares her views about the limited role of women during the Chicano movement.
Click to the next slide for more instructions and reflection questions.
According to Betita Martinez, how did many Chicano men interpret femininity?
After reading the excerpt, reflect verbally or through writing on these questions:
What is machismo?
Within the context of Chicano activist organizations (such as the Brown Berets), what type of jobs were usually assigned to women?
According to Betita Martinez, how did many Chicano men respond when women asked to play a larger role in the Chicano movement?
Machismo, by J. Ross Baughman. National Museum of American History.
In addition to discrimination and marginalization as members of an ethnic minority and exploitation as members of the working class, Martinez argued Chicanas faced an additional layer of oppression . . . They were women . . . within a cultural group that embraced machismo, a term that has been loosely defined as strong and/or aggressive masculine pride.
The Brown Berets were inspired by and modeled after the Black Panthers (pictured here), an influential political organization that was part of the Black Power movement in the 1960s.
Black Panthers, by Mark James Powers. National Museum of American History.
The Brown Berets (a political, pro-Chicano defense group) was criticized during the Chicano movement for its machismo stance and practices.
Women members of the Brown Berets became disillusioned with “their exclusion and subordination with the organization” (Montoya, 2016, p. 115) and eventually split off and formed their own group, which they called Las Adelitas de Aztlán.
Listen, while following along with the lyrics.
Do you recognize the tune?
What message is Suni trying to convey?
Another interesting track on Suni Paz’s 1972 album Brotando del silencio, is her reinterpretation of the popular song, "La bamba."
The lyrics of this song remind Chicanas about the goals of the movement and encourage them to join the fight.
Notable Chicano movement references in the lyrics:
Although Suni was born in Argentina and did not move to the United States until 1965, she identified as a Chicana feminist during the time of the Chicano movement.
Suni Paz Album Covers. Top: Unknown designer, Right: Designed by Sonya Cohen Cramer. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.
Suni Paz is well-known for the ways in which she uses music as a tool to amplify the voices of the oppressed and unheard, and to raise the consciousness of those around her.
Based on what you have learned so far, how would you define Chicana feminism?
The Chicana feminist movement has helped many women reclaim and redefine their role within the Chicana/o community.
Rosita, by Robert Valadez. Robert Valadez Fine Arts.
Chicana feminism can be understood as a social movement that challenges long-standing stereotypes and examines and ways in which facets of cultural identity intersect (gender, ethnicity, race, class, and sexuality).
La Conferencia de Mujeres Por La Raza (The National Chicana Conference) in 1971 was one of the first times that a large number of Mexican American women gathered together to discuss issues like racism, discrimination, and sexism, and other gender issues.
La Conferencia de Mujeres por La Raza Poster, Young Women's Christian Organization, via Wikimedia Commons.
Newspaper Icon. Public Domain Vectors.
Las Hijas de Cuauhtémoc, a student Chicana feminist newspaper founded in 1971, is another tangible example of Chicana resistance during the movement.
This newspaper was named after a Mexican feminist organization that worked against Porfirio Díaz (a dictator who served as president for thirty years in the late 1800s and early 1900s).
It covered a variety of topics related to the marginalization and stereotyping of Chicanas.
Chicana feminists do not believe machismo values are embedded in their cultural history.
Activists have often invoked historical symbols of female empowerment to disrupt this narrative.
Las adelitas, unknown artist, PD-US-expired, via Wikimedia Commons.
Many Chicana artists have interpreted and re-imagined the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe as a symbol of struggle, strength, and liberation.
From Left to Right: La offrenda, Wanted, by Ester Hernández. Smithsonian American Art Museum.
La Virgen de Guadalupe defendiendo los derechos de los Xicanos, by Ester Hernández. Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Portrait of the Artist as Guadalupe, by Yolanda M. López. Archives of American Art.
The songs from Paths 1 and 2 of this Lesson ("This Little Light of Mine" and "La bamba") provide examples of how music has the power to cross borders (of both space and time):
Follow these steps as you adapt and re-purpose one of the songs ("This Little Light of Mine" or "La bamba" based on your own interests, experiences, beliefs, values, and skills:
On another day (or as homework), follow these steps as you revise, rehearse, and refine your work based on teacher feedback:
30 minutes
Chelo Silva: La reina tejana del bolero, by Elizabeth Weil. Arhoolie Records.
It’s the first day of choir at your school . . . you love to sing and are very excited. You take your seat in the front row and warm-ups begin. After the first warm-up, your teacher asks you to move to the second row . . . so you comply. About halfway through the rehearsal, your teacher asks you to move again – this time to the third row. This pattern continues, and by the end of rehearsal, you are seated in the very back row. As you leave the classroom, you overhear your teacher tell the accompanist that she doesn’t like your voice . . . it is too loud and unrefined.
What would you do?
Legend has it, a woman named Chelo Silva found herself in a similar situation as a child.
How did she respond?
She kept singing anyway and eventually became a famous Tejana (Texan) singer, paving the way for many female musicians who came after her.
Chelo Silva, unknown photographer. Ideal Records, courtesy of Arhoolie Records.
Listen to a short clip of a song recorded by Chelo Silva in the 1950s.
How would you describe her vocal timbre?
Listen again . . .
What instruments do you notice?
Listen again . . .
What do you notice about the time structure?
What about the rhythms?
Listen again . . .
What do you notice about the structure (form) of the song itself?
The song you just heard is an example of a bolero.
Distinguishing musical characteristics of boleros include:
Listen again . . . are these characteristics present in this recording?
Perform these rhythmic patterns along with the recording of this bolero (using body percussion and/or instruments):
She was viewed as more than just a cantante (singer); she was an interpréte, a term that places emphasis on “how the individual interprets a composition” (Del Toro, 1995).
Chelo Silva was known mostly as a bolerista (a bolero singer).
Her low, powerful, and sultry voice was perfect for this genre.
This was significant because she was one of very few Mexican American artists who were able to gain popularity across the border.
Throughout her career, Chelo Silva maintained a strong link with Mexico.
Chelo liked to help up-and-coming composers by performing their songs (native Mexican composers and Tejano songwriters).
Chelo Silva’s career is notable for a variety of reasons, but especially from a feminist perspective:
Caravana poster advertising performance at Cine Tropical, in Villa Hermosa, state of Tabasco, Mexico, on July 3, 1958, unknown artist. Arhoolie Records.
Based on what you now know about boleros and Chelo Silva, what do you think this song is about?
Listen to the track again while following along with the lyrics/translation . . .
Were you right?
However, Chelo Silva did not adhere to traditional gender expectations regarding what she should sing and how she should sing it.
Early Mexican American female performers often sang songs from the male’s perspective.
The lyrics to the bolero you just heard ("Si acaso vuelves") have a distinct feminist message:
Even early in her career, Chelo Silva performed music that she wanted to sing and unapologetically interpreted it in her own way.
Audio courtesy of
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
Video courtesy of
National Portrait Gallery
Images courtesy of
The Arhoolie Foundation
Archives of American Art
TM/© 2021 the Cesar Chavez Foundation. www.chavezfoundation.org
Harvey Richards Media Archive
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
National Museum of American History
National Portrait Gallery
Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections
Robert Valadez Fine Arts
Smithsonian American Art Museum
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
The University of Kansas Libraries
Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University
© 2021 Smithsonian Institution. Personal, educational, and non-commercial uses allowed; commercial rights reserved. See Smithsonian terms of use for more information
This Lesson was funded in part by the Smithsonian Youth Access Grants Program with support from the Society for Ethnomusicology and the National Association for Music Education.
For full bibliography and media credits, see Lesson 10 landing page.