Julian B Rotter

According to Rotter's theory, most behavior is learned from around us - from other people and from our situations. Behavior can be conditioned internally or externally, with a general goal of maximizing rewards or minimizing/avoiding punishments. The condition works on expediencies or expectations, altering how much we expect a given thing to go a given way, and make decisions accordingly. The theory considers both what has happened to the person and how the person perceives any given situation for a more complete picture.

To understand an individual's present behavior, the past events in that person's life should be considered. Rather than digging into the deep and buried past as some do, though, Rotter believes more recent events can be used. An example from the book explained that poor grades in high school and poor SAT scores are sufficient evidence to expect an individual to fail in college. Just as the past can be used to create expectations, the present can change how the past is viewed; as new experiences and knowledge come, feelings about past events are updated to reflect the new feelings.

Rotter's theory does not have clearly defined stages, but instead is based upon the various interactions an individual experiences through life, all of which will vary to some degree from one person to another. Early on, most of these interactions primarily involve our parents. As we grow, others are added, and the stimulus generalization, wherein we associate certain situations with others we have previously experienced, grows more complex.

Rotter also considered language development highly important, as words are powerful tools for guidance and expression of feelings (affection, irritation, etc).

• One of the first things to determine is whether a person focuses on skill (internal control) or fate/chance (external control). Those with internal control tend to be more successful.
• Rotter used a variety of methods for assessment, each with a different strength and focus.
• Interviews are good for determining personality traits and for counseling.
• Projective tests are good for clinical diagnostics.
• Controlled behavior tests check the individual's response to certain situations in a controlled environment.
• Questionnaires are useful for checking social-learning hypotheses.

• Rotter believes therapy to be a learning process, and that the problem is in the individual's relations with others rather than in their own mind.
• Because different individuals have different needs, the therapist must be flexible about treatment, and must have an evolving relationship with the client.
• Therapy should involve helping the individual to understand what behaviors are causing problems, and how to change them. It may also involve teaching the individual to better discriminate what is acceptable in different situations.
• Sometimes, the individual may need to change careers, home life, or school situation.
• Sometimes, the individual may mostly just require reassurance.
• In addition to working away maladjusted behaviors, the therapist should help the individual to learn positive behaviors.