Who are the people behind the music, and where did they come from?

The First Cajuns, painting by George Rodrigue. Life & Legacy Foundation & Art Tour.

Rendezvous in Louisiana! Migration and Location

MUSIC MAKING

HISTORY & CULTURE

MUSIC LISTENING

20+ MIN

30+ MIN

30+ MIN

Wallace Gernger - Rubboard, Paul Me Zei - Accordion, photo by Chris Strachwitz. Arhoolie Records.

Rendezvous in Louisiana!

Path 1

Louisiana Bayou, photo by JamesDeMers, via Pixabay.

Multicultural Louisiana

Louisiana has always been a hub of multicultural exchange within the United States.

First inhabited by Native Americans (Attakapas, Chitimacha, Coushatta, Houma, and Opelousas Tribes), this land was colonized by the French in 1682.

Two Chitimacha Indians, by François Bernard. {PD-Art|PD-old-70-expired}, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Louisiana Land Disputes

Before the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which solidified much of Louisiana as United States territory, this region was greatly fought over and changed hands between the French, the Spanish, and the British.

Louisiana Purchase, by William Morris. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Discussion Question

Take a look at this map . . . think about Louisiana’s location within the United States:

Why do you think this area became an important landing place for European settlers and such a heavily fought over region?

Louisiana Location Map, by Alexrk2. CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

The Port of New Orleans

Being located on the coast of the U.S. and at the base of the Mississippi River, Louisiana was perfectly situated for trade routes. 

Many colonists, from all over Europe, arrived in the New World via the Port of New Orleans.

MSC Marina docked at Port of New Orleans, by Gnovick. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Exploring Cajun History: From Canada to Louisiana

Cajuns, the descendants of people from the region of Canada known as ACADIA, arrived in Louisiana in the late 1700s.

The word CAJUN comes from the word "Acadian"– mispronounced and misheard as 'Cadian' or 'Cadjin' and gradually morphed into 'Cajun', like a game of telephone.

Acadians 1754, by Klaus Mueller (Mikmaq), CC-by-SA-3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Text

In 1755, the British (Protestant) forcibly exiled the French-speaking (Catholic) Acadian people from their homeland, in an ethnic cleansing operation now known as 'Le Grand Derangement.'

‘Le Grand Derangement’

Acadia (the original home of the Cajuns), was first colonized by the French, until the British took over in the aftermath of the French & Indian War.

Acadia (the original home of the Cajuns), was first colonized by the French, until the British took over in the aftermath of the French & Indian War.

Between 15,000–18,000 people were relocated from the area and forced to find new homes.

Although many Acadians returned to France, some gradually made their way to the French territories in the Caribbean and to Louisiana.

The largest group of exiled Acadians eventually settled in southwest Louisiana's Bayou Country, near the banks of the Mississippi River–what we now call "Acadiana."

Generally Speaking .....

‘Acadiana’

Acadiana

New Orleans

Mississippi River

Louisiana Map, base map courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries. Additional drawings by author.

Although the Cajuns were encouraged to migrate to Louisiana because of its French colonization/remaining culture, Louisiana was actually being ruled by SPAIN at the time of their arrival.

The Spanish permitted them to settle there, primarily due to their CATHOLIC faith.

Generally Speaking .....

The Acadians and Religion

Deportation grand-pré, by George Craig. {PD-Art|PD-old-70-expired}, via Wikimedia Commons.

Generally Speaking .....

The Acadians and Music

Acadian ballad: "La Reine de la Salle" by Odile Falcon

Like all people who migrate from one place to another, the Acadians brought with them their music traditions.

Acadian fiddle tune: "The Mad Reel," by Michael Doucet and Dennis McGee

Let’s listen to two short samples of this music:

The Acadians were known primarily for their ballads and fiddle tunes.

Whereas Cajun heritage (associated with Cajun music) is relatively straightforward, Creole heritage (associated with zydeco music) is much more difficult to define.

Most often, the term Creole is used to describe some combination of African, Caribbean, Native American, Spanish, French and Portuguese heritage. 

Generally Speaking .....

Exploring Creole History

Creole in a Red Turban, by Jacques Guillaume Lucien Amans. The Historic New Orleans Collection.

Many of the enslaved Africans who arrived on these ships spent most of their waking hours working on farms and plantations.

Generally Speaking .....

Enslaved Africans in Louisiana

The Portuguese slaver Diligenté captured by H.M. Sloop Pearl with 600 slaves on board, taken in charge to Nassau, by Lieutenant Henry Samuel Hawker. Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.

The main cash crops during this time were tobacco and indigo (a plant that produces blue dye).

The first slave ships arrived in Louisiana in the early 1700s (most in the 1720s).

Maroons

Some of these people were able to make a life for themselves in the swamps of Louisiana (sometimes with the help of Native Americans in the area).

Great Dismal Swamp Fugitive Slaves, Virginia, painting by David Edward Cronin. {PD-Art | PD-old-95}, via Wikimedia Commons.

The term “maroon” refers to a runaway slave – someone who managed to escape from their owners.

Additionally, there was a class of “free people of color” (especially in New Orleans); people of mixed African, European, and sometimes Native American descent who were not enslaved prior to the abolishment of slavery.

Generally Speaking .....

Free People of Color

Free Woman of Color with daughter NOLA Collage, unknown artist. {PD-Art | PD-old-100}, via Wikimedia Commons.

“Antebellum” is a term often used to describe the time period before the Civil War.

In 1804, the first and only successful slave revolution in Haiti ended with approximately 10,000 Haitian refugees descending upon the port of New Orleans – doubling the population of the city.

Many of these refugees also ended up migrating to the western part of the state, on the bayous near the banks of the Mississippi. 

Generally Speaking .....

Haitian Refugees

​

​

Many of these refugees also ended up migrating to the western part of the state, on the bayous near the banks of the Mississippi.

Toussaint l'Ouverture, Haiti, by William H. Johnson. Smithsonian American Art Museum.

In 1804, the first and only successful slave revolution in Haiti ended with approximately 10,000 Haitian refugees descending upon the port of New Orleans – doubling the population of the city.

At the end of the Civil War (1865), the Bayous of Southwest Louisiana were populated with a mixture of Cajuns, former enslaved Africans, Free People of Color, Creoles, Native Americans, German, French, and Irish immigrants.

Generally Speaking .....

Rendezvous in Louisiana

A Musical “Gumbo”!

Over time, the influence of the music brought to Southwest Louisiana by different migrant groups got all mixed up in the bayous and marshes . . . Which led to the creation of the unique musical GUMBO we now call Cajun and zydeco.

Zydeco musicians Wallace Gernger on washboard and Paul McZeil on accordion.

“Paper in my Shoes,” by Nathan Abshire and the Balfa Brothers

“I'm Sad and I'm Blue,” by Wallace Gernger and Paul McZeil

Ideas for Extension Activities

1. Research and discuss the French colonization of Canada, the US, and the Caribbean.

2. Research and discuss the French and Indian War.

3. Research and discuss the Louisiana Purchase.

North American, Spanish, French, and British territories circa 1700, unknown artist. Ambrose Video Publishing Inc.

Learning Checkpoint

• In what ways did migration affect the development of Cajun and zydeco music in Southwest Louisiana?

End of Path 1: Where will you go next?

Exploring Traditional Song Types

Path 2

30+ minutes

Nine positions of the waltz, unknown artist, {PD-Art | PD-old-100}, via Wikimedia Commons.

Music and Migration

Along the Road, by Elemore Morgan, Jr. Arthur Roger Gallery.

When people migrated to (and settled in) southwest Louisiana, they brought their music with them.

Many different traditional song styles influenced the development of Cajun and zydeco music as we know it today.

Acadian Ballads: Listening Activity

What are your first impressions of this song?

Think about instrumentation, time/beat/meter, timbre, song structure, language, etc…

What do you think the song is about?

Listen to an excerpt from this recording of an old Acadian ballad.

Acadian ballad: "La Fille de Quatorze Ans," performed by Mdme. Daniel Bourke

About Acadian Ballads

• Early Acadian settlers in Louisiana brought with them traditional songs they learned in Canada from ancestors who originally brought them from France.
• These narrative songs provided a means to share love stories and humorous tales.
• Ballads were ritually sung at weddings and funerals and sung informally for small groups of people at house parties as the food cooked and young children played.

Adding Context: Ballads

Ballads are traditionally sung “a cappella" – only voice, no instruments.

Because the story is paramount, ballad singers usually do not dramatize the story with facial expressions and vocal effects . . . they do not want to distract from the story.

Optional: Click on the image to watch a video clip that illustrates this idea.

Album Cover Featuring Dillard Chandler, by Visual Dialogue. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

More About Ballads

Ballads usually consist of many verses or stanzas, using the same melody for each. Each verse tells a different part of the story.

• This type of song structure/form is called STROPHIC (AAA).

Ballads are often humorous tales or love songs. The topics of love songs are often sad.

• "La fille de quatorze ans" is a tragic recounting of estranged love between a young girl and a man who goes off to war.

Reels and Contredanses: Listening Activity

Listen to excerpts from these two tunes:

• Think about instrumentation, time/beat/meter, song structure, etc.

What similarities and differences do you notice?

What do you think this music was for?

Reel: "La reel a Fruge," performed by Dennis McGee and Sady Courville.

Contredanse: "Contredanse de Doucet," performed by Michael Doucet & Beausoleil.

Adding Context: Reels and Contredanses

• The reel is type of traditional dance tune that originated in Scotland and Ireland.

• The contredanse is a French country dance song that became popular in France in the 1600s.

• The Acadians learned many traditional reels and contredanses in Canada and France, and continued to be influenced by these dance tunes once they arrived in Louisiana.

• While traditional reels and contredanses are seldom played anymore, you can hear their influence in the Cajun two-steps of today.

Both reels and contradanses usually have TWO PARTS (Binary form, AB song structure).

Both reels and contredanses are typically in 4/4 (duple) time.

Both reels and contredanses tunes were traditionally used in a social context for dancing.

Generally Speaking .....

Analyzing Reels and Contredanses

Reel

Contradanse

Listen to excerpts from these two waltzes:

• Think about instrumentation, time/beat/meter, song structure, etc.

What similarities and differences do you notice?

What do you think this music was for?

Generally Speaking .....

The Waltz: Listening Activity

Traditional European Waltz

Old Louisiana Waltz

The waltz, a style of music and dance that originated in Europe, was extremely popular worldwide, particularly in France, Germany, and Austria. Waltzes were found in the high society of Paris, in orchestral compositions, as well as in the countryside and in folk traditions. 

• "Valse" is the word for waltz in French, and you still see many Cajun tunes spelled this way. 
• A waltz is always in triple meter, typically 3/4 time.
• Unlike other dances (such as the reel and contredanse), the waltz is still danced in Cajun country today.

Generally Speaking .....

Adding Context: The Waltz

Watch two videos of waltzes and have the class clap/tap along with the beat (and subdivisions) during both.

Discuss the similarities and differences between the European waltz and the Cajun waltz (video on the next slide).

Generally Speaking .....

Optional Extension Activity: Comparing Waltzes

Video 1: Viennese/European Waltz

Optional Extension Activity: Comparing Waltzes

Video 2:

Cajun

 Waltz

African-Derived Rhythms & Chants: Listening Activity

Listen to excerpts from these two recordings:

• Think about instrumentation, time/beat/meter, song structure, etc.

What similarities and differences do you notice?

What do you think this music was for?

Caribbean Dance Song

Shout Song (Southern United States)

• Both songs featured only the human voice and rhythmic instruments (a drum or clapping). The voice itself also acted as a rhythmic instrument.

• Both songs featured a similar syncopated, driving rhythm.

• The second recording utilized call and response form.

• Both songs had simple, repetitive lyrics.

• Both songs were most likely used for group celebration and dance.

African-Derived Rhythms & Chants: Comparison

Although the first recording comes from Haiti (in the Caribbean islands) and the second recording is an example of a secular slave chant that would have been sung in the Southern United States, both are examples of African Diaspora music.

• Diaspora is a term that describes being dispersed from your original homeland.
• The term African Diaspora refers to the involuntary movement of Africans and their descendants to different parts of the world.

African Diaspora Rhythms & Chants: Comparison

• African-influenced musical characteristics (e.g. driving rhythms, syncopation, form, lyrics, instrumental and vocal style, etc.), have heavily influenced music in Southwest Louisiana.​

African Diaspora Rhythms & Chants: Creole Connections

• In fact, Creoles had a genre similar to the shout song you heard earlier, called juré.​

• As zydeco music emerged as a distinct genre, it was also influenced by popular genres created by African Americans, such as R&B and the blues.

Class or Small Group Discussion

Think about all the styles of music you heard today.

• What do they have in common?
• In what ways are they different?
• How do these musical styles relate to Cajun and zydeco music today?
• Consider writing down (or journaling about) your observations.  

Some Discussion Points

• Most of these styles were originally types of dance music or used in the context of social dancing, primarily couples dancing. This holds true for both Cajun & zydeco music today.

• Many of the types of music featured either the fiddle or the accordion as the primary instruments, which are the “stars” of Cajun music.

• Most of this music was either in 2/4, 4/4, or 3/4 time: The primary time signatures found in Cajun & zydeco music.

• Most Cajun and Creole dance tunes have two alternating melodies (ABAB), although some have only one, and others have more than two (ABCABC).

Discussion Points Continued

• All of the song types covered in this lesson migrated to Louisiana–where they blended and influenced the development of Cajun music and zydeco.
• However, it should be noted that many of these musical styles also influenced one another in Europe, Canada, and the Caribbean before they arrived in Louisiana.

Learning Checkpoint

• Can you describe some characteristics of the music that traveled to southwest Louisiana along with migrant groups (e.g. ballads, reels, contredanses, waltzes, and African-derived rhythms & chants)?

End of Path 2: Where will you go next?

 Combining Musical Influences

Path 3

30+ minutes

Cajun & Zydeco Music: Combining Influences

The influence of fiddle tunes and ballads of the Acadians, the rhythms and chants from Haitians, Africans, and Native Americans, Reels from the Irish and Scottish, Polkas from Germany, and French Country dances, were all mixed up in the bayous and marshes to create the unique musical GUMBO we now call Cajun and zydeco.

As people migrated to the land we now know as Louisiana, they brought their music with them.

Top: Wallace Gernger - Rubboard, Paul Me Zei - Accordion, photo by Chris Strachwitz. Arhoolie Records. Bottom: The Balfa Brothers (Cajun Musicians), "Lacasine Two-Step," photo by Diana Jo Davies. Smithsonian Folklife Festival.

Activity: Arrange a Familiar Tune!

In this Path, you will build from this idea. Using your knowledge about how musical styles sometimes migrate from place to place and influence each other, you will create your own unique arrangement of a familiar tune.

Activity Instructions

1. On your “combining musical influences” worksheet, identify three genres of music that you like or that have personally influenced you (Examples: rap, hip-hop, rock & roll, jazz, country, folk, opera, classical, pop, Broadway Latin, etc…)​​

2. Define characteristics of these music genres, related to: Time/meter/tempo, rhythm/melody, instrumentation, vocal timbre, structure.​

3. Choose a familiar tune (try to choose one that you think many people would recognize . . . (Examples: Happy Birthday, Twinkle Twinkle, Row Your Boat, Old MacDonald, etc…)

Activity Instructions Continued

4. Change (arrange) this song based on the characteristics of the musical genres you previously identified.

        For example, you could rap “Twinkle Twinkle” to a rock beat played on conga drums and maracas.

5. Practice your arrangement.

6. Perform it for others.

Learning Checkpoint

• Did a new musical “flavor” emerge when you mixed musical styles in order to create your own arrangement of a familiar tune?

End of Path 3 and Lesson Hub 2: Where will you go next?

Lesson Hub 2 Media Credits

Audio courtesy of:

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Images courtesy of:

Ambrose Video Publishing Inc

The Arhoolie Foundation

Firefly Design

The Gibbes Museum of Art

Louisiana Digital Library

Smithsonian American Art Museum

Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage

Université de Moncton

University of Maine

© 2022 Smithsonian Institution. Personal, educational, and non-commercial uses allowed; commercial rights reserved. See Smithsonian terms of use for more information.

This Lesson was funded in part by the Grammy Museum Grant and the Smithsonian Youth Access Grants Program, with support from the Society for Ethnomusicology and the National Association for Music Education.

For full bibliography and media credits, see Lesson 2 landing page.