Who are the jíbaros?

What is música jíbara?

What is a concurso?

El Alma de Puerto Rico, cover art by Galen Lawson,  Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Música Jíbara: Identity, Seis and Concurso

CREATIVE CONNECTIONS

HISTORY & CULTURE

MUSIC LISTENING

20+ MIN

20+ MIN

30+ MIN

Component 1

20+ minutes

Jíbaro Identity and Culture

Man in a Sugar Cane Field During Harvest, Puerto Rico 1942, photo by Jack Delano. Library of Congress.

"El Alma de Puerto Rico"

Watch and listen to the first two minutes of the short documentary "El Alma de Puerto Rico" featuring Ecos de Borinquen.

• Is this an urban or rural musical style? Why do you think so?
• Who do you think listens to this type of music?

El Alma de Puerto Rico [Behind the Scenes Documentary], featuring Ecos de Borinquen. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Jíbaro - "People of the Forest"

The term jíbaro is Taíno for "People of the Forest" and it:

• is a marker of identity connected to Puerto Rican history and culture
• traditionally refers to rural farmers of  mixed-race ancestry
• today, applies to Puerto Ricans of all ethnic and social backgrounds
• a symbol of Puerto Rican pride

Who Are the Jíbaros?

"Jíbaro identity" is in many ways a construction based both in historical fact but also in myth told to uphold dominant culture.

Famous literary works have presented romanticized ideas about peasant life and characterized jíbaros as rebellious and anti-establishment.

What is dominant culture? What is a dominant cultural narrative?

Who Are the Jíbaros? (cont.)

Jíbaros were:

• communities formed in the late 1500s
• settlers who resented Spanish governmental, racial, religious, and economic practices
• independent, anti-establishment, and self-sufficient
• characterized as uneducated, lazy, and irrelevant

Can you think of a rural/peasant social group in the US who, despite making significant cultural contributions, are stigmatized?

What Is Música Jíbara?

Música Jíbara is:

• a broad term for Puerto Rican folk songs from mountain regions and rural areas
• an oral tradition
• a fusion of Taíno, Spanish, and African music
• influenced by Spanish poetic forms

Jíbaro Hasta el Hueso: Mountain Music of Puerto Rico, cover art by Marlow Palleja Design. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Música Jíbara: Aguinaldo and Seis

Música jíbara utilizes a variety of musical forms from Europe (Spanish waltzes, polkas, and mazurkas), the Caribbean (guaracha, Dominican merengue), and more recently, US jazz.

Ecos de Borinquen, photo by Daniel Sheehy. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

As shown in this photo, a traditional seis ensemble includes guitar, cuatro, bongos, and güiro.

 The two most important forms of música jíbara are aguinaldo and seis:

• Aguinaldo is a type of song associated with religious events (Christmas, Thanksgiving, Epiphany).
• Seis is a type of song that uses sung poetry (décima), stringed instruments, drums, and other percussion.

Listen to Seis

Listen to an excerpt from “Y amo la libertad (And I Love Freedom)" by Ecos de Borinquen.

Can you hear the main musical characteristics of seis? (sung poetry, stringed instruments, drums, and other percussion)

Música Jíbara, Migration, and Diaspora

Migration is a characteristic of the modern world: People scatter voluntarily or forcibly from their homeland and form diasporic communities in their new environment. For example, Puerto Ricans living in New York are part of the Puerto Rican diaspora.

Puerto Rico in Washington, cover art by Glenn L. Abel, Design Consultants. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

As is the case with all diasporic musics, outside its place of origin, the way that música jíbara is produced, transmitted, and performed changed.

Today, música jíbara is both a rural and urban style.

Diaspora and Musical "Authenticity"

Puerto Rican Music in Hawai'i, cover art by Daphne Shuttleworth. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

New identities are formed in diaspora, reinterpreting and fusing cultural elements from home (e.g., Puerto Rico) and the host nation (e.g., Hawai'i).

Sometimes, they aim to represent musical expressions as they were originally created and performed, rather than desiring change and embracing innovation.

Diasporic communities are often preoccupied with perceptions of “authenticity” and go to great lengths to preserve, maintain, and transmit their musical traditions and customs.

Diaspora Discussion

• Are you or someone you know a member of a diaspora?

• Based on the definition of diaspora, why do you think authenticity is such a crucial issue?

• Do you think diasporic identities and music can be as "authentic" as the homeland's? Why or why not?

• How does the idea of diaspora relate to the "American melting pot"?

Globalization and Music

This movement is across national borders, fast, in large scale, and related to technological advancement (e.g., Internet).

The way that music crosses borders and establishes itself in a new location is also related to globalization.

Globalization is the movement of:

• people
• ideas
• money and goods

Globalization and Music (cont.)

How does globalization affect the way you listen to music?

For example, reggaeton is a genre of popular dance music derived from Puerto Rican, Panamanian, Jamaican, Cuban, and Dominican influences.

Learning Checkpoint

• What is "jibaro identity"?

• What is música jíbara, where did it originate, and what are its cultural influences? 

• What are the two most common forms of música jíbara? 

• How do diaspora and globalization affect music?

End of Component 1: Where will you go next?

Seis Jíbaro

Component 2

20+ minutes

Jíbaro Hasta el Hueso: Mountain Music of Puerto Rico, cover art by Marlow Palleja Design. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

• A broad term for Puerto Rican folk songs associated with mountain regions and rural areas
• A fusion of Indigenous (Taíno), Spanish, and African music

Ecos de Borinquen, photo by Daniel Sheehy. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

As shown in this photo, a traditional seis ensemble includes guitar, cuatro, bongos, and güiro.

 The two most important forms of música jíbara are aguinaldo and seis:

• Aguinaldo is a type of song associated with religious events (Christmas, Thanksgiving, Epiphany).
• Seis is a type of song that uses sung poetry (décima), stringed instruments, drums, and other percussion.

What Is Música Jíbara?

What Is Seis? 

Listen to several short excerpts from“Y amo la libertad (And I Love Freedom)," by Ecos de Borinquen.

Do you think this music is for listening or dancing? Why?

Can you recognize any instruments or family of instruments?

Does the sound express rural or urban culture? How?

What Is Seis?

Listen to excerpts from “Y amo la libertad” once again!

Is this song in a major or minor key?

Can you sing the tonic?

Can you hum the bass line?

What Is Seis? Historical Connections

Early seis performances in Puerto Rico also involved six pairs of boys, but it later included more many more dancers.

Spain (Political), U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. University of Texas Libraries. Seville (circled in red) is where the seis originated.

The history of the term seis (six) is:

• A dancing and singing practice.
• Tied to 16th-century Spanish Christian ritual also known as seis.
• Danced by six boy-only couples.

Seises are often named after places (fajardeño), people (Andino), choreography (chorreao), and style (controversia).

Seis Perfomance, featuring Ecos de Borinquen, video still by Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

More about Seis in Puerto Rico

There are two types of seis: 1) dancing (fast and lively) and 2) singing (slower).

As dancing category, seis is influenced by Spanish dances (fandango).

Seis in Context

Seis is played in both religious and secular contexts:

• Religious: weddings, patron saint feast days, baptisms, etc.
• Secular: competitions, festivals, and family gatherings, etc.

"Seis Fajardeño," by Cuerdas de Borínquen

Over time, the seis lost its popularity as a dance form.

Presently, it is primarily used as a medium for poetic and instrumental improvisation.

Seis Jíbaro: Instruments

Cuatro:

• guitar–like folkloric string instrument
• national symbol of Puerto Rican identity
• Traditionally, four double-courses of strings
• The modern cuatro has five double-courses (ten total) of metal strings.

Within a seis ensemble, melodic and harmonic materials are performed by members of the chordophone family: guitar (Spain) and cuatro (Puerto Rico). 

Seis Jíbaro: The Cuatro and Improvisation

• Cuatristas (cuatro players) are fast, virtuosic and have masterful improvisation skills.

• Innovations include the use of chromaticism (notes not in the scale) and jazz harmonies.

"El Cuatro" [Live Performance Video], by Ecos de Borinquen. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Seis Jíbaro: More Instruments

Modern ensembles also include electric bass and bongos (a pair of small, portable, open-bottomed drums of different sizes)

Idiophones: güiro (pronounced gwē - rō) and maracas

• The güiro is an Indigenous instrument made out of a thin, dried gourd. 
• Maracas are rattles, traditionally made of calabash containing seeds.

Güiro, unknown maker. National Museum of American History.

Maracas, unknown maker. National Museum of American History.

Seis Jíbaro: Listening for Harmony

Can you identify the chord progression in “Seis Fajardeño”?

"Seis Fajardeño," by Cuerdas de Borínquen

Seis music is often in a major key and has simple harmonic progressions:

• Tonic-Subdominant-Dominant (e.g., I–IV–V)
• or Andalusian cadences (I–bVII–bVI–V)

Seis Jíbaro: Trovadores and Décima

Seis is an oral tradition: Singers play an important role in the preservation and transmission of this music.

Trovadores are poet-singers and master improvisers.

• They use a wide range of themes: bucolic scenes, religious references, patriotic sentiment, political commentary, and historic events.
• They use satire and a Spanish poetic form called décima to structure their compositions.
• They improvise over the ten-line scheme (décima) "on the spot"
• recite classic works from memory

Seis Jíbaro: Listening for Melody

• Each of the many styles of seis has a signature stock melody

• The seis fajardeño (from the city of Fajardo) is one of the most popular styles among trovadores

• Stock melodies played on cuatro in the introduction, also serve as models for improvisation during interludes between the sung poetry and solo sections

• Listen for the stock melody in "Seis Fajardeño"

"Seis Fajardeño," by Cuerdas de Borínquen

Learning Checkpoint

• What are some of the most important characteristics of seis music in Puerto Rico?

• What instruments belong to the seis ensemble?

• How does seis relate to música jíbara?

End of Component 2: Where will you go next?

Concursos:

Décima Festivals

Component 3

30+ minutes

Karol Aurora De Jesús Reyes Performs "Diálogo" with Ecos de Borinquen at the 2005 Smithsonian Folklife Festival, video still by Smithsonian Folklife Festival.

Watch and Listen: "Dialogos"

Why do you think this mini-documentary is called "diálogo" (dialogue)?

Karol Aurora De Jesús Reyes and Ecos de Borinquen Perform "Diálogo" at the 2005 Smithsonian Folklife Festival. Smithsonian Folklife Festival.

Concursos: Décima Festivals

Concursos are:

• regional or nationwide

• over 90 competitions each year

• international (e.g., trovador festivals)

• a way to keep oral tradition alive!

The term concurso:

• means competition in Spanish

• a festive staged event in front of an audience

• premier performance venue for seis improvisation and competition

Concursos: Décima Festivals

Concursos are central to the preservation and transmission of seis music and culture.

• They are often compared to sporting events because of audience participation, which adds a sense of excitement.

Concurso performances are characterized by:

• the creation of spontaneous compositions (i.e., improvisations)
• time restriction
• scrutiny by audience, musicians, and jury
• great honor

Cuatristas

The cuatrista is judged on the ability to perform as an accompanist and as an improviser. They play:

• cyclical harmonic and rhythmic patterns
• melodic interludes
• spontaneous variations on stock melodic patterns (which showcases their creative ability during solo sections)

Within the context of a concurso, trovadores improvise accompanied by cuatristas in a sort of musical dialogue.

Audiences

The virtuosity of cuatristas and quick wit of trovadores make concursos great entertainment.

Concurso audiences include fans and occasional viewers, from older and newer generations.

Some may not fully understand the complexities of seis but do enjoy participating in the struggles and triumphs of trovadores as they duel off.

Concurso de Trovadores en Barranquitas, 1959, unknown artist. CC BY-NC-SA, via Archivo General de Puerto Rico.

Judging a Concurso

• “Authenticity” is judged during competition based on improvisation:

  • Trovadores must master the use of the poetic form known as décima
  • Trovadores duel and try to outdo each other with their melodic and lyrical improvisations within this structure

    • This duel is known as controversia (Eng., controversy) or pico pico (beak-to-beak, in reference to cock fighting)

    • Competitors base their improvisations on the pie forzado (lit., "forced foot"): a theme selected by the jury and announced publicly to the audience during a performance

Listening for Décima

Formal features of the décima:

• Ten lines (diez)
• rhyme scheme
• octosyllabic meter
• pie forzado (main theme)
• knowledge of harmonic and rhythmic elements

The pie forzado in "Y Amo La Libertad" is freedom (suggested by an audience member).

"Concurso de Trovadores" Winners

As you watch the 1984–1998 winners of the Concurso de Trovadores Bacardí (the largest in the world), consider the criteria for a successful concurso performance:

• Use of the structure (décima),
• effective improvisation related to the topic (pie forzado),
• and expression/audience engagement.

Encuentro de Campeones Trovadores Bacardi 1984–1998, uploaded by Ramon Mirbon.

Write Your Own Décima!

Optional: Décima, Beyond Puerto Rico

International festivals, concursos and television shows often bring together décima performers and musicians from various countries to share their related yet distinct traditions.

The décima is now firmly rooted in the musical traditions of many cultures, both in Spain and in Latin America (including Portuguese-language décimas in Brazil).

Semana del Trovador, unknown artist. Courtesy of Decimania.

Décima, Beyond Puerto Rico (Colombia)

As you have learned in this lesson, in Puerto Rico, the décima stanza provides the structural basis for seis (a type of song associated with música jíbara). Décima improvisers are known as trovadores.

Listen to an example of how décima is sometimes used in Colombia.

What main difference do you notice?

Un Fuego de Sangre Pura, cover art by Communication Visual. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

“Décima La Miseria Humana,” performed by Los Gaiteros de San Jacinto from Colombia.

Décima, Beyond Puerto Rico (Mexico, Cuba, Chile)

In Mexico, trovadores sing or recite décimas as part of a music tradition called huapango arribeño.

In Cuba, improvisers are called repentistas, and décimas are performed within the context of punto music.

In Chile, décimas are typically performed in as part of a tradition called canto a la poeta.

“El huapango resplandece,” by Guillermo Velázquez y Los Leones de la Sierra de Xichú

“Pinar del rio y tabaco,” by Cuyaguateje

“Brindis por Violeta Parra,” by Hugo González

Learning Checkpoint

• What are concursos and what is their social function?

• What is the relationship between cuatristas and trovadores?

• What is the structure of décima?

• What is the criteria for a successful concurso performance?

• How is décima used in other places around the world?

End of Component 3 and Lesson 2: Where will you go next?

Lesson 2 Media Credits

Audio courtesy of​

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Video courtesy of

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Images courtesy of

Smithsonian Folkways Recordings

Library of Congress

National Museum of American History

Perry Castañeda Collection of the University of Texas Library

Exhibiciones del Archivo General de Puerto Rico

Decimania

Archivo General de Puerto Rico

Museo de Historia, Antropología y Arte de la Universidad de Puerto Rico

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For full bibliography and media credits, see Lesson 2 landing page.