Zhi Han
How/why might Majoranas play a role in fault tolerance?
How/why might Majoranas be used for quantum computing?
Topology looks at invariant properties of objects under continuous transformations.
We say two Hamiltonians are topologically equivalent if they can be deformed into each other without crossing E = 0.
Count the number of energy levels below E = 0.
This number cannot change under continuous transformations.
Call this idea a topological invariant.
Transform \(H\) into another of the same type.
\(H\) is block diagonal. Any guesses?
Conservation law:
\[UH = HU, \quad U = \hat \sigma_z \otimes 1\]
\[UH = HU, \quad U = \hat \sigma_z \otimes 1\]
Transform \(H\) into another of the same type.
\(H\) is off diagonal. Any guesses?
Conservation law:
\[\sigma_z H = -H \sigma_z\]
\[\sigma_z H = -H \sigma_z\]
State \(|\psi_A \psi_B\rangle\) has energy \(E\)
implies \(|\psi_A, -\psi_B \rangle\) has energy \(- E\)
\[\sigma_z H = -H \sigma_z\]
BCS theory:
Electrons in superconductors can be created/destroyed in pairs. (Cooper pairs)
Particle number not conserved.
\( c^\dagger_i \) = create particle at site \(i\)
\( c_i \) = destroy particle at site \(i\)
particle moving from \(m\) to \(n\)
creating and destroying pairs at \(m, n\)
Rewrite as quadratic form
Vector of creation and annhilation operators
Bogoliubov-de Gennes
Hamiltonian.
Topological properties?
BdG Hamiltonian. Note we are allowed to cross H = 0.
A superconductor has \(n\) sites where an electron \(c^\dagger_i\) can be created.
By converting to a \(H_{BdG}\) we artificially introduced a vector C. This doubled the degrees of freedom from \(n\) to \(2n\).
This means energy \(E\) and \(-E\) in \(H_{BdG}\) corresponds to the same state. This is different than the off-diagonal case where the two states are independent.
To imagine \(E\) and \(-E\) in \(H_{BdG}\) as two independent states, we might imagine a new operator.
This is called Bogoliubov quasiparticle and is a superposition of particle and hole.
Symmetries give rise to topological properties.
(BCS) superconductors have a particle hole symmetry.
i.e. particles and "antiparticles/holes" feel the same interactions.
The BdG spectrum is symmetric from \(E\) to \(-E\) and corresponds to the same state.
However, we can imagine that they are two different quasi states.
The topological invariant is the fermion parity, or even/oddness detector called the Plaffian.
Symmetry
Topological Invariants
Particle Hole
Sublattice
Plaffian (Fermion parity)
# of Eigenstates
below E = 0
Topological Properties
Symmetric Eigenspectrum
“I know how where this talk is going!” you say.
“You’re just going to come up with two systems with different Plaffians. One is even and the other is odd. If there is something interesting about one of the two systems, we can just keep staying in that system, because to change the system, you must change the topological invariant!
That something, is the Majorana fermion and is exactly the fault tolerant behaviour we care about.
In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the creation and destruction operators for fermions (in momentum space) are:
This can be neatly summed up by the following rules:
For a single fermion, we have:
But for multiple particles, we have: (using the anticommutator:)
When you have a pair of creation and destruction operators, you can write down the following unitary transformation:
The pair \(\gamma_1\) and \(\gamma_2\) are called Majorana operators. Notice that \(\gamma\) = \(\gamma^\dagger\).
Because \(c^\dagger, c\) must be fermion operators, this gives a constraint on the Majorana operators:
A single fermion as two Majoranas \(\gamma_1, \gamma_2 \) has the anti-commutation relation:
Multiple Majoranas: (\(\gamma_i = \gamma^\dagger_i\))
A single fermion has the anti-commutation relation:
Multiple fermions:
Does this mean we just found a particle that is it's own antiparticle? This is the theoretical prediction made by Ettore Majorana in 1937.
One proposed model containing Majoranas is the Kitaev chain. The Kitaev chain is just \(n\) electrons in a row:
Let's saw an electron in half!
No unpaired Majoranas, and each majorana having energy \(\mu/2\):
Or like this, each Majorana having an energy \(t\):
We can put it into one Hamiltonian, and converting back from Majoranas to electrons we obtain the model of the Kitaev chain:
We switch phases at \( \mu = 2t \).
Rewrite this in terms of fermion operators, and what do we get?
We can put it into one Hamiltonian, and converting back from Majoranas to electrons we obtain the model of the Kitaev chain:
\(\mu\) is the chemical potential
\(t\) is the kinetic energy
\(\Delta\) is the superconducting band gap
We switch phases at \( \mu = 2t \).
\(\mu\) is the chemical potential
\(t\) is the kinetic energy
\(\Delta\) is the superconducting band gap
We switch phases at \( \mu = 2t \).
Topological \( |\mu|<2t\)
Trivial \( |\mu|\geq2t\)
The Majoranas are a topological property of the system. Therefore if we slice off the Kitaev Chain, a new Majorana will appear.
Again, this is because the topological phase has Q = -1.
The Kitaev Chain, a toy model of a superconducting wire, hosts two topological quantum phases.
The topological phase, corresponding to Q = -1.
The trivial phase, corresponding to Q = +1.
The Majoranas live on the boundary of a superconducting wire and are protected by topology and symmetry.
The boundary being a topological property.
Particle hole symmetry forbidding energy transitions.
Heisenberg equation
Closed trajectory. Thus, H(T) = H(0)
[3]
You and your buddy were made in a pair,
Then wandered around, braiding here, braiding there.
You'll fuse back together when braiding is through
Well bid you adieu as you vanish from view.
Alexei exhibits a knack for persuading
That someday we'll crunch quantum data by braiding, With quantum states hidden where no one can see, Protected from damage through topology.
Anyon, anyon, where do you roam?
Braid for a while ... before you go home.
[1]Topology in Condensed Matter Course (Main reference)
[2]M. Leijnse and K. Flensberg, Introduction to Topological Superconductivity and Majorana Fermions, Semicond. Sci. Technol. 27, 124003 (2012).
[3]C. W. J. Beenakker, Search for Majorana Fermions in Superconductors, Annu. Rev. Condens. Matter Phys. 4, 113 (2013).
[4]B. Field and T. Simula, Introduction to Topological Quantum Computation with Non-Abelian Anyons, Quantum Sci. Technol. 3, 045004 (2018).