Attila Bátorfy, ELTE MMI
MEDIA SYSTEMS, JOURNALISTIC ROLES AND THE GOVERNMENT'S RIGHTS
Media System Theories
Normative theories
- what journalism should be and do
- the basis of comparison: American, British model, modernism (Freedom House, RSF based on the normative theory)
Positive/descriptive theories
- what is and why it is
1956
2004
2015
Siebert-Peterson-Schramm - Four Theories of Press, 1956
| Dimension | Authoritarian | Libertarian | Social Responsibility | Soviet-totalitarian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Developed | 16th, 17th century England | 17th century England, 18th century USA | 20th century USA | USSR |
| Out of | Absolute power of the monarch | General philosphy of rationalism and natural rights | Commission of Freedom of Press, self regulatory codes | Marxism-Leninism, Hegelism |
| Chief purpose | Support of the monarch/government | Inform, entertain, sell, discover the truth, check the government | inform, entertain, sell, raise awareness, giving voice to the powerless | Contribution to the success of the dictator |
| Who has right | Who has royal patent or permission | Anyone with economic means | Everyone who has something to say | Loyals to the dictator and to the party |
| How are the media controlled? | by government patents, guilds, license, censorship | self regulation, free market, courts | self regulation, ethics, consumer action | surveillance, political and economic influence on the press |
| What is forbidden? | criticism of the monarch and its decisions | defamation, obscenity, indecency | invasion of private and human rights, and vital social interests | criticism of the dictator and party objectives |
| Ownership | Pirvate or public | Mostly private | Mostly private | Public |
| Essence | Instrument of effecting government policy | Checking the government | Assume obligation of social responsibility | Arm of state |
Critical remarks
- Idealization of modernity and the North-Atlantic, mostly American and British press
- Idealization of neutral watchdog journalism, while this kind of journalism is in minority
- Media actors think normatively, but act differently
- There aren't homogeneous media systems (except in dictatorships)
Hallin and Mancini - Comparing Media Systems, 2004
| Dimension | Mediterranean or Polarized Pluralist | Northern-European or Democratic Corporatist | North-Atlantic Liberal |
|---|---|---|---|
| Where | France, Spain, Greece, Italy, Portugal | Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Netherlands, France | GBR, USA, Ireland, Canada |
| Newspaper industry | Low circulation, elite and politically oriented press | High circulation, early developed mass-circulation press | Medium circulation, early adopted mass and commercial press |
| Political parallelism | High political parallelism, external pluralism, commentary-journalism, parliamentary/government model of broadcasting | Historically strong party press, shift towards neutral commercial press, politics in broadcasting with substantial autonomy | Neutral commercial press, information oriented journalism, internal pluralism |
| Professionalization | Weak, instrumentalization | Strong professionalization, institutionalized self regulation | Strong, noninstitutionalized self regulation |
| Role of the state | Strong, state subsidies of the press, periods of censorship, deregulation | Strong with protection of press freedom, state subsidies, strong PSM | Market-dominated media, strong PSM in GBR and Ireland |
Hallin and Mancini - Comparing Media Systems, 2004
Party-press parallelism:
The structure of the media system is parallel to the structure of the party system
Political parallelism:
The structure of the media system is parallel to the structure of the political system
External/internal pluralism: high level of external pluralism = high level of parallelism.
Instrumentalization: influence of politics, politicians, business or commercial interest on content.
Critical remarks
- Eastern-Europe, South America, Africa, Asia are missing
- Too much importance on politics and political press
- Too much exceptions within "coherent" media systems
- Submarkets (press and broadcast media) can act quite differently within a country, thus very hard to define them as "system"
Dobek-Ostrowska - Four Models in CEE, 2015
| Dimension | Hybrid-liberal | Politicized | Transitional | Authoritarian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Where? | Czechia, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia | Hungary, Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia | Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia, Moldova, Ukraine | Russia, Belorussia |
| Main characteristics | - High points on freedom of press and democracy rankings - Political stability - Strong, independent market - Numerous multinational companies - Political independence |
- Decreasing points on rankings - Strong political parallelism and party press - Growing political and governmental influence - Lower democratization - Low professionalism, low ethics and norms, partisanship - Oligarchization |
- Poor countries - Low points - Political instability - Weak opposition - Oligarchization - Strong connection between the political and the business elite - Few independent media |
- Surveillance, threats, harassment - Censorship - Political and business elite is the same - No independent actors - Strong government control |
Hungary
| Who, when | Denomination |
|---|---|
| Lázár, 1992 | Multi party press |
| Splichal, 1994, Sipos 2010 | Italianization |
| Wyka, 2007 | Berlusconization |
| Jakubowicz, 2008 | Mediterranean |
| Polyák-Urbán, 2013– | Captured |
| Bajomi-Lázár, 2013 | Party-colonized |
| Becker, 2013 | Vassal |
| Dobek-Ostrowska, 2015 | Politicized |
| Bajomi-Lázár, 2018 | Putinization |
| Bajomi-Lázár, 2019 | Patronage-clientelism |
| Bátorfy, 2020 | Semi-authoritarian |
| Bátorfy, 2022 | Controlled, purchased |
Problems with media system theories
- false assumption that liberal democratic media serve better the society's interest than controlled, regulated media (particularism)
- theories are focusing on political media, while the media is way more diverse
- theories are focusing on legacy press and broadcast media
- every country has mixed media system with different norms
- every country has particular history and culture
Journalistic roles
| Question | Neutral | Watchdog | Activist | Propagandist |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Where | England, USA | England, USA | France, Russia, Germany | USSR, Nazi Germany |
| Aim | Inform, entertain | hold the powerful accountable | raise awareness, advocacy, representation | serving the power and the leader |
| Genre | News, report, infotainment | report, investigative report | investigative report, opinion-led report, gonzo journalism | interview, opinion |
| Regulation | Self-regulation | Self regulation | Self regulation and state intervention | Particular media regulation, state intervention |
| What is forbidden | Defamation, libel, fabrication, blasphemy | Defamation, libel, fabrication, expressing opinion in reports | Doing harm against the community/minority interest | Criticizing the power, the leader |
| Media types | Tabloids, commercial television and radio | legacy press, public broadcaster | Online news media | Mostly state owned media, or oligarchs |
| Financial background | Commercial advertising, subscription | Commercial advertising, grants, state subsidies | Grants, crowdfunding, state subsidies | Deflected commercial advertising, state advertising, state subvention |
Journalistic roles
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Journalism's first obligation is to the truth
-
Its first loyalty is to citizens
-
Its essence is a discipline of verification
-
Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover
-
It must serve as an independent monitor of power
-
It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise
-
It must strive to keep the significant interesting and relevant
-
It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional
-
Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience
-
Citizens, too, have rights and responsibilities when it comes to the news
Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel - The Elements of Journalism, 2002
Text
The Government's rights
US Constitution
Right to speak
Right to listen
Free speech rights
protection against
Government
US Constitution
Right to speak
Right to listen
derivatives
Right against coerced speech
Right against compelled listening
Free speech rights
Does the Government have the right to speak?
direct
indirect
- subsidies
- advertising
- press releases
- ownership
Does the Government have the right to speak?
| NO | YES | YES, BUT |
|---|---|---|
| Siebert, Peterson, Shramm, 1956 | Bagdikian, 1983 | Fiss, 2013 |
| Mayton, 1994 | Altschull, 1984 | Redish and Kessler, 1996 |
| Heymann, 1999 | Picard, 1985 | Post, 1995 |
| Blocher, 2015 | Chomsky and Herman, 1988 | |
| Kamenshine, 1979 | Hoynes and Croteau, 2013 | |
| Yudof, 1983 | Merrill, 1973 |
Media systems
By Attila Bátorfy
