Principles of Computer Systems
Spring 2019
Stanford University
Computer Science Department
Instructors: Chris Gregg and Philip Levis
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
- From last week:
- Great question in class: Wait -- you said we shouldn't mix threading and multiprocessing, yet in the
scrabble-word-finder
program you used subprocess, which usesfork
/exec
from a thread -- what's the deal? - As it turns out, you can use
fork
from a thread, but you just need to be careful. - Check out this StackOverflow answer for some details:
- Great question in class: Wait -- you said we shouldn't mix threading and multiprocessing, yet in the
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
It's safe to fork in a multithreaded program as long as you are very careful about the code between fork and exec. You can make only re-enterant (aka asynchronous-safe) system calls in that span. In theory, you are not allowed to malloc or free there, although in practice the default Linux allocator is safe, and Linux libraries came to rely on it. End result is that you must use the default allocator.
- In other words: don't use malloc and free (or new / delete) after you fork, otherwise you might end up with bad things happening.
- Hostname Resolution: IPv4
- Linux C includes directives to convert host names (e.g. "
www.facebook.com
") to IPv4 address (e.g. "31.13.75.17
") and vice versa. Functions calledgethostbyname
andgethostbyaddr
, while technically deprecated, are still so prevalent that you should know how to use them. - In fact, your B&O textbook only mentions these deprecated functions:
struct hostent *gethostbyname(const char *name);
struct hostent *gethostbyaddr(const char *addr, int len, int type);
- Each function populates a statically allocated
struct hostent
describing some host machine on the Internet. -
gethostbyname
assumes its argument is a host name (e.g. "www.google.com
"). -
gethostbyaddr
assumes the first argument is a binary representation of an IP address (e.g. not the string "171.64.64.137
", but the base address of a character array with ASCII values of 171, 64, 64, and 137 laid down side by side innetwork byte order
. For IPv4, the second argument is usually 4 (or rather,sizeof(struct in_addr)
) and the third is typically theAF_INET
constant.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
- Hostname Resolution: IPv4
- The
struct hostent
record packages all of the information about a particular host:
- The
struct in_addr {
unsigned int s_addr // four bytes, stored in network byte order (big endian)
};
struct hostent {
char *h_name;
// official name of host
char **h_aliases;
// NULL-terminated list of aliases
int h_addrtype;
// host address type (typically AF_INET for IPv4)
int h_length;
// address length (typically 4, or sizeof(struct in_addr) for IPv4)
char **h_addr_list; // NULL-terminated list of IP addresses
}; // h_addr_list is really a struct in_addr ** when hostent contains IPv4 addresses
- The
struct in_addr
is a one-field record modeling an IPv4 address.- The
s_addr
field packs each figure of a dotted quad (e.g. 171.64.64.136) into one of its four bytes. Each of these four numbers numbers can range from 0 up through 255.
- The
- The
struct hostent
is used for all IP addresses, not just IPv4 addresses. For non-IPv4 addresses,h_addrtype
,h_length
, andh_addr_list
carry different types of data than they do for IPv4
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
- Users prefer the host naming scheme behind "
www.facebook.com
", but network communication ultimately works with IP addresses like "31.13.75.17".- Not surprisingly,
gethostbyname
andgethostbyaddr
are used to manage translations between the two. - Here's the core of larger program (full program here) that continuously polls the users for hostnames and responds by publishing the set of one or more IP addresses each hostname is bound to:
- Not surprisingly,
static void publishIPAddressInfo(const string& host) {
struct hostent *he = gethostbyname(host.c_str());
if (he == NULL) { // NULL return value means resolution attempt failed
cout << host << " could not be resolved to an address. Did you mistype it?" << endl;
return;
}
cout << "Official name is \"" << he->h_name << "\"" << endl;
cout << "IP Addresses: " << endl;
struct in_addr **addressList = (struct in_addr **) he->h_addr_list;
while (*addressList != NULL) {
char str[INET_ADDRSTRLEN];
cout << "+ " << inet_ntop(AF_INET, *addressList, str, INET_ADDRSTRLEN) << endl;
addressList++;
}
}
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv4
-
h_addr_list
is typed to be achar *
array, implying it's an array of C strings, perhaps dotted quad IP addresses. However, that's not correct. For IPv4 records,h_addr_list
is an array ofstruct in_addr *s
. - The
inet_ntop
function places a traditional C string presentation of an IP address into the provided character buffer, and returns the the base address of that buffer. - The while loop crawls over the
h_addr_list
array until it lands on aNULL
.
static void publishIPAddressInfo(const string& host) {
struct hostent *he = gethostbyname(host.c_str());
if (he == NULL) { // NULL return value means resolution attempt failed
cout << host << " could not be resolved to an address. Did you mistype it?" << endl;
return;
}
cout << "Official name is \"" << he->h_name << "\"" << endl;
cout << "IP Addresses: " << endl;
struct in_addr **addressList = (struct in_addr **) he->h_addr_list;
while (*addressList != NULL) {
char str[INET_ADDRSTRLEN];
cout << "+ " << inet_ntop(AF_INET, *addressList, str, INET_ADDRSTRLEN) << endl;
addressList++;
}
}
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv4
- A sample run of our hostname resolver is presented on the right.
- In general, you see that most of the hostnames we recognize are in fact the officially recorded hostnames.
-
www.yale.edu
is the exception. It looks like Yale relies on a content delivery network called Cloudflare, andwww.yale.edu
is catalogued as an alias. - Google's IP address is different by geographical location, which is why it exposes only one IP address.
- Billions of people use okcupid every second, though, which is why it necessarily expose five.
myth61$ ./resolve-hostname
Welcome to the IP address resolver!
Enter a host name: www.google.com
Official name is "www.google.com"
IP Addresses:
+ 216.58.192.4
Enter a host name: www.coinbase.com
Official name is "www.coinbase.com"
IP Addresses:
+ 104.16.9.251
+ 104.16.8.251
Enter a host name: www.yale.edu
Official name is "www.yale.edu.cdn.cloudflare.net"
IP Addresses:
+ 104.16.140.133
+ 104.16.141.133
Enter a host name: www.okcupid.com
Official name is "www.okcupid.com"
IP Addresses:
+ 198.41.209.132
+ 198.41.209.133
+ 198.41.208.132
+ 198.41.209.131
+ 198.41.208.133
Enter a host name: www.wikipedia.org
Official name is "www.wikipedia.org"
IP Addresses:
+ 198.35.26.96
Enter a host name:
All done!
myth61$
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv6
- Because IPv4 addresses are 32 bits, there are 2^32, or roughly 4 billion different IP addresses. That may sound like a lot, but it was recognized decades ago that we'd soon run out of IPv4 addresses.
- In contrast, there are 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 IPv6 addresses. That's because IPv6 addresses are 128 bits.
- Here are a few IPv6 addresses:
- Google's 2607:f8b0:4005:80a::2004
- MIT's 2600:1406:1a:396::255e and 2600:1406:1a:38d::255e
- Berkeley's 2600:1f14:436:7801:15f8:d879:9a03:eec0 and 2600:1f14:436:7800:4598:b474:29c4:6bc0
- The White House's 2600:1406:1a:39e::fc4 and 2600:1406:1a:39b::fc4
A more generic version of gethostbyname
—inventively named gethostbyname2
—can be used to extract IPv6 address information about a hostname.
struct hostent *gethostbyname2(const char *name, int af);
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv6
- There are only two valid address types that can be passed as the second argument to
gethostbyname2
:AF_INET
andAF_INET6
. - A call to
gethostbyname2(host, AF_INET)
is equivalent to a call togethostbyname(host)
- A call to
gethostbyname2(host, AF_INET6)
still returns astruct hostent *
, but the struct hostent is populated with different values and types: - the
h_addrtype
field is set toAF_INET6
, - the
h_length
field houses a 16 (or rather, sizeof(struct in6_addr)), and - the
h_addr_list
field is really an array ofstruct in6_addr
pointers, where eachstruct in6_addr
looks like this:
struct in6_addr {
u_int8_t s6_addr[16]; // 16 bytes (128 bits), stored in network byte order
};
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv6
- Here is the
IPv6
version of thepublishIPAddressInfo
we wrote earlier (we call itpublishIPv6AddressInfo
).
static void publishIPv6AddressInfo(const string& host) {
struct hostent *he = gethostbyname2(host.c_str(), AF_INET6);
if (he == NULL) { // NULL return value means resolution attempt failed
cout << host << " could not be resolved to an address. Did you mistype it?" << endl;
return;
}
cout << "Official name is \"" << he->h_name << "\"" << endl;
cout << "IPv6 Addresses: " << endl;
struct in6_addr **addressList = (struct in6_addr **) he->h_addr_list;
while (*addressList != NULL) {
char str[INET6_ADDRSTRLEN];
cout << "+ " << inet_ntop(AF_INET6, *addressList, str, INET6_ADDRSTRLEN) << endl;
addressList++;
}
}
- Notice the call to
gethostbyname2
, and notice the explicit use ofAF_INET6
,struct in6_addr
, andINET6_ADDRSTRLEN
. - Full program is right here.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Hostname Resolution: IPv6
- A sample run of our IPv6 hostname resolver is presented below.
- Note that many hosts aren't IPv6-compliant yet, so they don't admit IPv6 addresses.
myth61$ ./resolve-hostname6
Welcome to the IPv6 address resolver!
Enter a host name: www.facebook.com
Official name is "star-mini.c10r.facebook.com"
IPv6 Addresses:
+ 2a03:2880:f131:83:face:b00c:0:25de
Enter a host name: www.microsoft.com
Official name is "e13678.dspb.akamaiedge.net"
IPv6 Addresses:
+ 2600:1406:1a:386::356e
+ 2600:1406:1a:397::356e
Enter a host name: www.google.com
Official name is "www.google.com"
IPv6 Addresses:
+ 2607:f8b0:4005:801::2004
Enter a host name: www.berkeley.edu
Official name is "www-production-1113102805.us-west-2.elb.amazonaws.com"
IPv6 Addresses:
+ 2600:1f14:436:7800:4598:b474:29c4:6bc0
+ 2600:1f14:436:7801:15f8:d879:9a03:eec0
Enter a host name: www.harvard.edu
www.harvard.edu could not be resolved to an address. Did you mistype it?
Enter a host name:
All done!
myth61$
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
- The three data structures presented below are in place to model the IP address/port pairs:
struct sockaddr { // generic socket
unsigned short sa_family; // protocol family for socket
char sa_data[14];
// address data (and defines full size to be 16 bytes)
};
The
sockaddr_in
is used to model IPv4 address/port pairs.
- The
sin_family
field should always be initialized to beAF_INET
, which is a constant used to be clear that IPv4 addresses are being used. If it feels redundant that a record dedicated to IPv4 needs to store a constant saying everything is IPv4, then stay tuned. - The
sin_port
field stores a port number in network byte (i.e. big endian) order. - The
sockaddr_in
field stores an IPv4 address as a packed, big endianint
, as you saw withgethostbyname
and thestruct hostent
. - The
sin_zero
field is generally ignored (though it's often set to store all zeroes). It exists primarily to pad the record up to 16 bytes.
struct sockaddr_in { // IPv4 socket address record
unsigned short sin_family;
unsigned short sin_port;
struct in_addr sin_addr;
unsigned char sin_zero[8];
};
struct sockaddr_in6 { // IPv6 socket address record
unsigned short sin6_family;
unsigned short sin6_port;
unsigned int sin6_flowinfo;;
struct in6_addr sin6_addr;
unsigned int sin6_scope_id;
};
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
- The three data structures presented below are in place to model the IP address/port pairs:
The
sockaddr_in6
is used to model IPv6 address/port pairs.
- The
sin6_family
field should always be set toAF_INET6
. As with thesin_family
field,sin6_family
field occupies the first two bytes of surrounding record. - The
sin6_port
field holds a two-byte, network-byte-ordered port number, just like sin_port does. - A
struct in6_addr
is also wedged in there to manage a 128-bit IPv6 address. -
sin6_flowinfo
andsin6_scope_id
are beyond the scope of what we need, so we'll ignore them.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
struct sockaddr { // generic socket
unsigned short sa_family; // protocol family for socket
char sa_data[14];
// address data (and defines full size to be 16 bytes)
};
struct sockaddr_in { // IPv4 socket address record
unsigned short sin_family;
unsigned short sin_port;
struct in_addr sin_addr;
unsigned char sin_zero[8];
};
struct sockaddr_in6 { // IPv6 socket address record
unsigned short sin6_family;
unsigned short sin6_port;
unsigned int sin6_flowinfo;;
struct in6_addr sin6_addr;
unsigned int sin6_scope_id;
};
- The three data structures presented below are in place to model the IP address/port pairs:
The
struct sockaddr
is the best C can do to emulate an abstract base class.
- You rarely if ever declare variables of type
struct sockaddr
, but many system calls will accept parameters of typestruct sockaddr *
. - Rather than define a set of network system calls for IPv4 addresses and a second set of system calls for IPv6 addresses, Linux defines one set for both.
- If a system call accepts a parameter of type struct sockaddr *, it really accepts the address of either a
struct sockaddr_in
or astruct sockaddr_in6
. The system call relies on the value within the first two bytes—thesa_family
field—to determine what the true record type is.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
struct sockaddr { // generic socket
unsigned short sa_family; // protocol family for socket
char sa_data[14];
// address data (and defines full size to be 16 bytes)
};
struct sockaddr_in { // IPv4 socket address record
unsigned short sin_family;
unsigned short sin_port;
struct in_addr sin_addr;
unsigned char sin_zero[8];
};
struct sockaddr_in6 { // IPv6 socket address record
unsigned short sin6_family;
unsigned short sin6_port;
unsigned int sin6_flowinfo;;
struct in6_addr sin6_addr;
unsigned int sin6_scope_id;
};
At this point, we know most of the directives needed to implement and understand how to implement
createClientSocket
and createServerSocket
.
-
createClientSocket
is the easier of the two, so we'll implement that one first. (For simplicity, we'll confine ourselves to an IPv4 world.) - Fundamentally, createClientSocket needs to:
-
- Confirm the host of interest is really on the net by checking to see if it has an IP address.
gethostbyname
does this for us. - Allocate a new descriptor and configure it to be a socket descriptor. We'll rely on the
socket
system call to do this. - Construct an instance of a
struct sockaddr_in
that packages the host and port number we're interested in connecting to. - Associate the freshly allocated socket descriptor with the host/port pair. We'll rely on an aptly named system call called
connect
to do this. - Return the fully configured client socket.
- Confirm the host of interest is really on the net by checking to see if it has an IP address.
- The full implementation of createClientSocket is on the next slide.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Here is the full implementation of
createClientSocket
:int createClientSocket(const string& host, unsigned short port) {
struct hostent *he = gethostbyname(host.c_str());
if (he == NULL) return -1;
int s = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0);
if (s < 0) return -1;
struct sockaddr_in address;
memset(&address, 0, sizeof(address));
address.sin_family = AF_INET;
address.sin_port = htons(port);
// h_addr is #define for h_addr_list[0]
address.sin_addr = *((struct in_addr *)he->h_addr);
if (connect(s, (struct sockaddr *) &address, sizeof(address)) == 0) return s;
close(s);
return -1;
}
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Here are a few details about my implementation of createClientSocket
worth calling out:
- We call
gethostbyname
first before we callsocket
, because we want to confirm the host has a registered IP address—which means it's reachable—before we allocate any system resources. - Recall that
gethostbyname
is intrinsically IPv4. If we wanted to involve IPv6 addresses instead, we would need to usegethostbyname2
. - The call to
socket
finds, claims, and returns an unused descriptor.AF_INET
configures it to be compatible with an IPv4 address, andSOCK_STREAM
configures it to provide reliable data transport, which basically means the socket will reorder data packets and requests missing or garbled data packets to be resent so as to give the impression that data that is received in the order it's sent.- The first argument could have been
AF_INET6
had we decided to use IPv6 addresses instead. (Other arguments are possible, but they're less common.) - The second argument could have been
SOCK_DGRAM
had we preferred to collect data packets in the order they just happen to arrive and manage missing and garbled data packets ourselves. (Other arguments are possible, though they're less common.)
- The first argument could have been
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Here are a few more details:
-
address
is declared to be of typestruct sockaddr_in
, since that's the data type specifically set up to model IPv4 addresses. Had we been dealing with IPv6 addresses, we'd have declared astruct sockaddr_in6
instead. - It's important to embed
AF_INET
within thesin_family
field, since those two bytes are examined by system calls to determine the type of socket address structure. - The
sin_port
field is, not surprisingly, designed to hold the port of interest.htons
—that's an abbreviation forh
ost-to
-n
etwork-s
hort—is there to ensure the port is stored in network byte order (which is big endian order). On big endian machines,htons
is implemented to return the provided short without modification. On little endian machines (like themyth
s),htons
returns a figure constructed by exchanging the two bytes of the incomingshort
. In addition tohtons
, Linux also providedhtonl
for four-bytelong
s, and it also providesntohs
andntohl
to restore host byte order from network byte ordered figures. - The call to
connect
associates the descriptors
with the host/IP address pair modeled by the suppliedstruct sockaddr_in *
. The second argument is downcast to astruct sockaddr *
, sinceconnect
needs accept a pointer to any type within the entirestruct sockaddr
family, not juststruct sockaddr_in
s.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Here is the full implementation of
createServerSocket
:int createServerSocket(unsigned short port, int backlog) {
int s = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0);
if (s < 0) return -1;
struct sockaddr_in address;
memset(&address, 0, sizeof(address));
address.sin_family = AF_INET;
address.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl(INADDR_ANY);
address.sin_port = htons(port);
if (bind(s, (struct sockaddr *)&address, sizeof(address)) == 0 &&
listen(s, backlog) == 0) return s;
close(s);
return -1;
}
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Here are a few details about my implementation of
createServerSocket
worth calling out:
- The call to
socket
is precisely the same here as it was increateClientSocket
. It allocates a descriptor and configures it to be a socket descriptor within theAF_INET
namespace. - The address of type
struct sockaddr_in
here is configured in much the same way it was increateClientSocket
, except that thesin_addr.s_addr
field should be set to a local IP address, not a remote one. The constantINADDR_ANY
is used to state that address should represent all local addresses. - The
bind
call simply assigns the set of local IP addresses represented byaddress
to the provided sockets
. Because we embeddedINADDR_ANY
withinaddress
,bind
associates the supplied socket with all local IP addresses. That means oncecreateServerSocket
has done its job, clients can connect to any of the machine's IP addresses via the specified port. - The
listen
call is what converts the socket to be one that's willing to accept connections viaaccept
. The second argument is a queue size limit, which states how many pending connection requests can accumulate and wait their turn to beaccept
ed. If the number of outstanding requests is at the limit, additional requests are simply refused.
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions v2
By Chris Gregg
Lecture 16: Network System Calls, Library Functions v2
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