“the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine.”

- Norbert Weiner

Latinized form of Greek kybernetes “steersman” (metaphorically “guide, governor”), from kybernan “to steer or pilot a ship, direct as a pilot,” figuratively “to guide, govern,” which is of uncertain origin.

https://www.etymonline.com/word/cybernetics

in any entity

Second-order cybernetics sees the study of cybernetics as a cybernetic process itself:

• Cyberneticians are not external objective observers, they are part of the system
• Cybernetic processes mutually reinforce each other.
• Two second-order cybernetics theories:

  • Radical Constructivism (von Glasersfeld)

  • Conversation Theory (Pask)

"There was insufficient storage...in the mini-computer to allow for electronic display of a subject matter, but this was no discouragement to the implementors. The processor simply controlled a row of lights above a row of cubbyholes, each one containing a clipboard with a piece of paper on which the content was printed. The user responded to a lighted cubbyhole by extracting the clipboard and reading the material."

- Paul Pangaro

A popular belief is that students have different learning styles (e.g., visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic)

and presenting material to students according to their learning style will lead to better learning.

However, researchers have shown that there is little evidence that tailoring instruction to learning styles makes any difference.

For example, see https://youtu.be/rhgwIhB58PA

In several experiments, Pask and colleagues showed that tailoring instruction to a student’s learning style/strategy makes a big difference.

Also discovered two general learning styles:

comprehension learners - likely to use holist strategy, focus on the why

operation learners - likely to use serialist strategy, focus on the how

Professor in ICS from 1983

Founded the Educational Technology Center